Kanto/Hoenn-migration. Also for Johto but you must migrate from Emerald, after beating the league in Emerald, you go to the Safari Zone and there'll be a new area. In the new area you can find Johto Pokemon including the starters (the starters are EXTREMELY rare to find though.)
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Go to other regions and talk to the professors sorry that's all i know
if you are in kanto it is in saffron city but if you are in jhoto its in goldenrod city
16 badges. 8 from Jhoto and 8 from Kanto.
You can't.
I think once you beat every Gym Leader in Kanto, you go to Oak's Lab and he might give you Kanto starters. (Charmander, Bulbasaur, or Squirtle you choose which one.) If I'm wrong you can be mad at me if you want. <3