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The air standard is and estimate and is usually greater than the actual cycle due to various losses that occur during the actual engine operation.

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The air standard cycle assumes ideal gas behavior and perfect processes, neglecting losses like friction and heat transfer. In contrast, the actual cycle incorporates real-world inefficiencies such as pressure drops, heat loss, and non-ideal gas behavior. It provides a more accurate representation of how actual engines operate.

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Q: Difference between air standard and actual cycle?
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