Why should the thermometer not touch the bottom of the beaker?

Answer 1

The inner wall of the chamber is water-cooled and the heat from the particles is removed via conduction through the wall to the water and convection of the heated water to an external cooling system. Turbomolecular or diffusion pumps allow for particles to be evacuated from the bulk volume and cryogenic pumps, consisting of a liquid helium-cooled surface, serve to effectively control the density throughout the discharge by providing an energy sink for condensation to occur. When done correctly, the fusion reactions produce large amounts of high energy neutrons. Being electrically neutral and relatively tiny, the neutrons are not affected by the magnetic fields nor are they stopped much by the surrounding vacuum chamber. The neutron flux is reduced significantly at a purpose-built neutron shield boundary that surrounds the tokamak in all directions. Shield materials vary, but are generally materials made of atoms which are close to the size of neutrons because these work best to absorb the neutron and its energy. Good candidate materials include those with much hydrogen, such as water and plastics. Boron atoms are also good absorbers of neutrons. Thus, concrete and polyethylene doped with boron make inexpensive neutron shielding materials. Once freed, the neutron has a relatively short half-life of about 10 minutes before it decays into a proton and electron with the emission of energy. When the time comes to actually try to make electricity from a tokamak-based reactor, some of the neutrons produced in the fusion process would be absorbed by a liquid metal blanket and their kinetic energy would be used in heat-transfer processes to ultimately turn a generator. (in chronological order of start of operations) 1960s: TM1-MH (since 1977 as Castor; since 2007 as Golem) in Prague, Czech Republic. In operation in Kurchatov Institute since the early 1960s but renamed to Castor in 1977 and moved to IPP CAS, Prague. In 2007 moved to FNSPE, Czech Technical University in Prague and renamed to Golem. 1975: T-10, in Kurchatov Institute, Moscow, Russia (formerly Soviet Union); 2 MW 1983: Joint European Torus (JET), in Culham, United Kingdom 1986s: DIII-D, in San Diego, United States; operated by General Atomics since the late 1980s 1987: STOR-M, University of Saskatchewan; Canada; first demonstration of alternating current in a tokamak 1988: Tore Supra, at the CEA, Cadarache, France 1989: Aditya, at Institute for Plasma Research (IPR) in Gujarat, India 1989: COMPASS, in Prague, Czech Republic; in operation since 2008, previously operated from 1989 to 1999 in Culham, United Kingdom 1990: FTU, in Frascati, Italy 1991: ISTTOK, at the Instituto de Plasmas e Fusão Nuclear, Lisbon, Portugal 1991: ASDEX Upgrade, in Garching, Germany 1992: H-1NF (H-1 National Plasma Fusion Research Facility) based on the H-1 Heliac device built by Australia National University's plasma physics group and in operation since 1992 1992: Tokamak à configuration variable (TCV), at the EPFL, Switzerland 1993: HBT-EP Tokamak, at the Columbia University in New York City, USA 1994: TCABR, at the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; this tokamak was transferred from Swiss Plasma Center in Switzerland 1995: HT-7, at the Institute of Plasma Physics, Hefei, China 1996: Pegasus Toroidal Experiment at the University of Wisconsin–Madison; in operation since the late 1990s 1999: NSTX in Princeton, New Jersey 1999: Globus-M in Ioffe Institute, Saint Petersburg, Russia 2002: HL-2A, in Chengdu, China 2006: EAST (HT-7U), in Hefei, at The Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, China (ITER member) 2008: KSTAR, in Daejon, South Korea (ITER member) 2010: JT-60SA, in Naka, Japan (ITER member); upgraded from the JT-60. 2012: Medusa CR, in Cartago, at the Costa Rica Institute of Technology, Costa Rica 2012: SST-1, in Gandhinagar, at the Institute for Plasma Research, India (ITER member) 2012: IR-T1, Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch, Tehran, Iran 2015: ST25-HTS at Tokamak Energy Ltd in Culham, United Kingdom 2017: KTM – this is an experimental thermonuclear facility for research and testing of materials under energy load conditions close to ITER and future energy fusion reactors, Kazakhstan 2018: ST40 at Tokamak Energy Ltd in Culham, United Kingdom 2020: HL-2M China National Nuclear Corporation and the Southwestern Institute of Physics, China 1960s: T-3 and T-4, in Kurchatov Institute, Moscow, Russia (formerly Soviet Union); T-4 in operation in 1968. 1963: LT-1, Australia National University's plasma physics group built a device to explore toroidal configurations, independently discovering the tokamak layout 1970: Stellarator C reopens as the Symmetric Tokamak in May at PPPL 1971–1980: Texas Turbulent Tokamak, University of Texas at Austin, US 1972: The Adiabatic Toroidal Compressor begins operation at PPPL 1973–1976: Tokamak de Fontenay aux Roses (TFR), near Paris, France 1973–1979: Alcator A, MIT, US 1975: Princeton Large Torus begins operation at PPPL 1978–1987: Alcator C, MIT, US 1978–2013: TEXTOR, in Jülich, Germany 1979–1998: MT-1 Tokamak, Budapest, Hungary (Built at the Kurchatov Institute, Russia, transported to Hungary in 1979, rebuilt as MT-1M in 1991) 1980–1990: Tokoloshe Tokamak, Atomic Energy Board, South Africa 1980–2004: TEXT/TEXT-U, University of Texas at Austin, US 1982–1997: TFTR, Princeton University, US 1983–2000: Novillo Tokamak, at the Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Nucleares, in Mexico City, Mexico 1984–1992: HL-1 Tokamak, in Chengdu, China 1985–2010: JT-60, in Naka, Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan; (Being upgraded 2015–2018 to Super, Advanced model) 1987–1999: Tokamak de Varennes; Varennes, Canada; operated by Hydro-Québec and used by researchers from Institut de recherche en électricité du Québec (IREQ) and the Institut national de la recherche scientifique (INRS) 1988–2005: T-15, in Kurchatov Institute, Moscow, Russia (formerly Soviet Union); 10 MW 1991–1998: START in Culham, United Kingdom 1990s–2001: COMPASS, in Culham, United Kingdom 1994–2001: HL-1M Tokamak, in Chengdu, China 1999–2006: UCLA Electric Tokamak, in Los Angeles, US 1999–2014: MAST, in Culham, United Kingdom 1992–2016: Alcator C-Mod, MIT, Cambridge, US ITER, international project in Cadarache, France; 500 MW; construction began in 2010, first plasma expected in 2025. Expected fully operational by 2035. DEMO; 2000 MW, continuous operation, connected to power grid. Planned successor to ITER; construction to begin in 2024 according to preliminary timetable. CFETR, also known as "China Fusion Engineering Test Reactor"; 200 MW; Next generation Chinese fusion reactor, is a new tokamak device. K-DEMO in South Korea; 2200–3000 MW, a net electric generation on the order of 500 MW is planned; construction is targeted by 2037. Most of the terms listed in Wikipedia glossaries are already defined and explained within Wikipedia itself. However, glossaries like this one are useful for looking up, comparing and reviewing large numbers of terms together. You can help enhance this page by adding new terms or writing definitions for existing ones. This glossary of engineering terms is a list of definitions about the major concepts of engineering. Please see the bottom of the page for glossaries of specific fields of engineering. Absolute electrode potentialIn electrochemistry, according to an IUPAC definition, is the electrode potential of a metal measured with respect to a universal reference system (without any additional metal–solution interface). Absolute pressureIs zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, using an absolute scale, so it is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure. Absolute zeroIs the lower limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, a state at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reach their minimum value, taken as 0. Absolute zero is the point at which the fundamental particles of nature have minimal vibrational motion, retaining only quantum mechanical, zero-point energy-induced particle motion. The theoretical temperature is determined by extrapolating the ideal gas law; by international agreement, absolute zero is taken as −273.15° on the Celsius scale (International System of Units), which equals −459.67° on the Fahrenheit scale (United States customary units or Imperial units). The corresponding Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales set their zero points at absolute zero by definition. AbsorbanceAbsorbance or decadic absorbance is the common logarithm of the ratio of incident to transmitted radiant power through a material, and spectral absorbance or spectral decadic absorbance is the common logarithm of the ratio of incident to transmitted spectral radiant power through a material. AC powerElectric power delivered by alternating current; common household power is AC. AccelerationThe rate at which the velocity of a body changes with time, and the direction in which that change is acting. AcidA molecule or ion capable of donating a hydron (proton or hydrogen ion H+), or, alternatively, capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair (a Lewis acid). Acid-base reactionA chemical reaction that occurs between an acid and a base, which can be used to determine pH. Acid strengthIn strong acids, most of the molecules give up a hydrogen ion and become ionized. AcousticsThe scientific study of sound. Activated sludgeA type of wastewater treatment process for treating sewage or industrial wastewaters using aeration and a biological floc composed of bacteria and protozoa. Activated sludge modelA generic name for a group of mathematical methods to model activated sludge systems. Active transportIn cellular biology, active transport is the movement of molecules across a membrane from a region of their lower concentration to a region of their higher concentration—against the concentration gradient. Active transport requires cellular energy to achieve this movement. There are two types of active transport: primary active transport that uses ATP, and secondary active transport that uses an electrochemical gradient. An example of active transport in human physiology is the uptake of glucose in the intestines. ActuatorA device that accepts 2 inputs (control signal, energy source) and outputs kinetic energy in the form of physical movement (linear, rotary, or oscillatory). The control signal input specifies which motion should be taken. The energy source input is typically either an electric current, hydraulic pressure, or pneumatic pressure. An actuator can be the final element of a control loop Adenosine triphosphateA complex organic chemical that provides energy to drive many processes in living cells, e.g. muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, chemical synthesis. Found in all forms of life, ATP is often referred to as the "molecular unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer. AdhesionThe tendency of dissimilar particles or surfaces to cling to one another (cohesion refers to the tendency of similar or identical particles/surfaces to cling to one another). Adiabatic processA process where no heat energy is lost to outside space. Adiabatic wallA barrier through which heat energy cannot pass. Aerobic digestionA process in sewage treatment designed to reduce the volume of sewage sludge and make it suitable for subsequent use. AerodynamicsThe study of the motion of air, particularly its interaction with a solid object, such as an airplane wing. It is a sub-field of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, and many aspects of aerodynamics theory are common to these fields.. Aerospace engineeringIs the primary field of engineering concerned with the development of aircraft and spacecraft. It has two major and overlapping branches: Aeronautical engineering and Astronautical Engineering. Avionics engineering is similar, but deals with the electronics side of aerospace engineering. Afocal systemAn optical system that produces no net convergence or divergence of the beam, i.e. has an infinite effective focal length. Agricultural engineeringThe profession of designing machinery, processes, and systems for use in agriculture. AlbedoA measure of the fraction of light reflected from an astronomical body or other object. AlkaneAn alkane, or paraffin (a historical name that also has other meanings), is an acyclic saturated hydrocarbon. In other words, an alkane consists of hydrogen and carbon atoms arranged in a tree structure in which all the carbon–carbon bonds are single. AlkeneAn unsaturated hydrocarbon that contains at least one carbon–carbon double bond. The words alkene and olefin are often used interchangeably. AlkyneIs an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon—carbon triple bond. The simplest acyclic alkynes with only one triple bond and no other functional groups form a homologous series with the general chemical formula CnH2n−2. Alloyis a combination of metals or of a metal and another element. Alloys are defined by a metallic bonding character. Alpha particleAlpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium-4 nucleus. They are generally produced in the process of alpha decay, but may also be produced in other ways. Alpha particles are named after the first letter in the Greek alphabet, α. Alternating currentElectrical current that regularly reverses direction. Alternative hypothesisIn statistical hypothesis testing, the alternative hypothesis (or maintained hypothesis or research hypothesis) and the null hypothesis are the two rival hypotheses which are compared by a statistical hypothesis test. In the domain of science two rival hypotheses can be compared by explanatory power and predictive power.. AmmeterAn instrument that measures current. Amino acidsAre organic compounds containing amine (-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) functional groups, along with a side chain (R group) specific to each amino acid. The key elements of an amino acid are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N), although other elements are found in the side chains of certain amino acids. About 500 naturally occurring amino acids are known (though only 20 appear in the genetic code) and can be classified in many ways. Amorphous solidAn amorphous (from the Greek a, without, morphé, shape, form) or non-crystalline solid is a solid that lacks the long-range order that is characteristic of a crystal. AmpereThe SI unit of current flow, one coulomb per second. AmphoterismIn chemistry, an amphoteric compound is a molecule or ion that can react both as an acid as well as a base. Many metals (such as copper, zinc, tin, lead, aluminium, and beryllium) form amphoteric oxides or hydroxides. Amphoterism depends on the oxidation states of the oxide. Al2O3 is an example of an amphoteric oxide.. AmplifierA device that replicates a signal with increased power. AmplitudeThe amplitude of a periodic variable is a measure of its change over a single period (such as time or spatial period). There are various definitions of amplitude, which are all functions of the magnitude of the difference between the variable's extreme values. In older texts the phase is sometimes called the amplitude. Anaerobic digestionIs a collection of processes by which microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen. The process is used for industrial or domestic purposes to manage waste or to produce fuels. Much of the fermentation used industrially to produce food and drink products, as well as home fermentation, uses anaerobic digestion. Angular accelerationIs the rate of change of angular velocity. In three dimensions, it is a pseudovector. In SI units, it is measured in radians per second squared (rad/s2), and is usually denoted by the Greek letter alpha (α). Angular momentumIn physics, angular momentum (rarely, moment of momentum or rotational momentum) is the rotational equivalent of linear momentum. It is an important quantity in physics because it is a conserved quantity—the total angular momentum of a system remains constant unless acted on by an external torque. Angular velocityIn physics, the angular velocity of a particle is the rate at which it rotates around a chosen center point: that is, the time rate of change of its angular displacement relative to the origin (i.e. in layman's terms: how quickly an object goes around something over a period of time - e.g. how fast the earth orbits the sun). It is measured in angle per unit time, radians per second in SI units, and is usually represented by the symbol omega (ω, sometimes Ω). By convention, positive angular velocity indicates counter-clockwise rotation, while negative is clockwise. AnionIs an ion with more electrons than protons, giving it a net negative charge (since electrons are negatively charged and protons are positively charged). Annealing (metallurgy)A heat treatment process that relieves internal stresses. AnnihilationIn particle physics, annihilation is the process that occurs when a subatomic particle collides with its respective antiparticle to produce other particles, such as an electron colliding with a positron to produce two photons. The total energy and momentum of the initial pair are conserved in the process and distributed among a set of other particles in the final state. Antiparticles have exactly opposite additive quantum numbers from particles, so the sums of all quantum numbers of such an original pair are zero. Hence, any set of particles may be produced whose total quantum numbers are also zero as long as conservation of energy and conservation of momentum are obeyed. AnodeThe electrode at which current enters a device such as an electrochemical cell or vacuum tube. ANSIThe American National Standards Institute is a private non-profit organization that oversees the development of voluntary consensus standards for products, services, processes, systems, and personnel in the United States. The organization also coordinates U.S. standards with international standards so that American products can be used worldwide. Anti-gravityAnti-gravity (also known as non-gravitational field) is a theory of creating a place or object that is free from the force of gravity. It does not refer to the lack of weight under gravity experienced in free fall or orbit, or to balancing the force of gravity with some other force, such as electromagnetism or aerodynamic lift. Applied engineeringIs the field concerned with the application of management, design, and technical skills for the design and integration of systems, the execution of new product designs, the improvement of manufacturing processes, and the management and direction of physical and/or technical functions of a firm or organization. Applied-engineering degreed programs typically include instruction in basic engineering principles, project management, industrial processes, production and operations management, systems integration and control, quality control, and statistics. Applied mathematicsMathematics used for solutions of practical problems, as opposed to pure mathematics. Arc lengthDetermining the length of an irregular arc segment is also called rectification of a curve. Historically, many methods were used for specific curves. The advent of infinitesimal calculus led to a general formula that provides closed-form solutions in some cases. Archimedes' principleArchimedes' principle states that the upward buoyant force that is exerted on a body immersed in a fluid, whether fully or partially submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces and acts in the upward direction at the center of mass of the displaced fluid. Archimedes' principle is a law of physics fundamental to fluid mechanics. It was formulated by Archimedes of Syracuse. Area moment of inertiaThe 2nd moment of area, also known as moment of inertia of plane area, area moment of inertia, or second area moment, is a geometrical property of an area which reflects how its points are distributed with regard to an arbitrary axis. The second moment of area is typically denoted with either an I {\displaystyle I} for an axis that lies in the plane or with a J {\displaystyle J} for an axis perpendicular to the plane. In both cases, it is calculated with a multiple integral over the object in question. Its dimension is L (length) to the fourth power. Its unit of dimension when working with the International System of Units is meters to the fourth power, m4. Arithmetic meanIn mathematics and statistics, the arithmetic mean or simply the mean or average when the context is clear, is the sum of a collection of numbers divided by the number of numbers in the collection. Arithmetic progressionIn mathematics, an arithmetic progression (AP) or arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers such that the difference between the consecutive terms is constant. Difference here means the second minus the first. For instance, the sequence 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, . . . is an arithmetic progression with common difference of 2. Aromatic hydrocarbonAn aromatic hydrocarbon or arene (or sometimes aryl hydrocarbon) is a hydrocarbon with sigma bonds and delocalized pi electrons between carbon atoms forming a circle. In contrast, aliphatic hydrocarbons lack this delocalization. The term "aromatic" was assigned before the physical mechanism determining aromaticity was discovered; the term was coined as such simply because many of the compounds have a sweet or pleasant odour. The configuration of six carbon atoms in aromatic compounds is known as a benzene ring, after the simplest possible such hydrocarbon, benzene. Aromatic hydrocarbons can be monocyclic (MAH) or polycyclic (PAH). Arrhenius equationThe Arrhenius equation is a formula for the temperature dependence of reaction rates. The equation was proposed by Svante Arrhenius in 1889, based on the work of Dutch chemist Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff who had noted in 1884 that Van 't Hoff's equation for the temperature dependence of equilibrium constants suggests such a formula for the rates of both forward and reverse reactions. This equation has a vast and important application in determining rate of chemical reactions and for calculation of energy of activation. Arrhenius provided a physical justification and interpretation for the formula. Currently, it is best seen as an empirical relationship. It can be used to model the temperature variation of diffusion coefficients, population of crystal vacancies, creep rates, and many other thermally-induced processes/reactions. The Eyring equation, developed in 1935, also expresses the relationship between rate and energy. Artificial Intelligence(AI), is intelligence demonstrated by machines, unlike the natural intelligence displayed by humans and animals. Leading AI textbooks define the field as the study of "intelligent agents": any device that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of successfully achieving its goals. Colloquially, the term "artificial intelligence" is often used to describe machines (or computers) that mimic "cognitive" functions that humans associate with the human mind, such as "learning" and "problem solving". Assembly languageA computer programming language where most statements correspond to one or a few machine op-codes. Atomic orbitalIn atomic theory and quantum mechanics, an atomic orbital is a mathematical function that describes the wave-like behavior of either one electron or a pair of electrons in an atom. This function can be used to calculate the probability of finding any electron of an atom in any specific region around the atom's nucleus. The term atomic orbital may also refer to the physical region or space where the electron can be calculated to be present, as defined by the particular mathematical form of the orbital. Atomic packing factorThe percentage of the volume filled with atomic mass in a crystal formation. Audio frequencyAn audio frequency (abbreviation: AF) or audible frequency is characterized as a periodic vibration whose frequency is audible to the average human. The SI unit of audio frequency is the hertz (Hz). It is the property of sound that most determines pitch. AustenitizationAustenitization means to heat the iron, iron-based metal, or steel to a temperature at which it changes crystal structure from ferrite to austenite. The more open structure of the austenite is then able to absorb carbon from the iron-carbides in carbon steel. An incomplete initial austenitization can leave undissolved carbides in the matrix. For some irons, iron-based metals, and steels, the presence of carbides may occur during the austenitization step. The term commonly used for this is two-phase austenitization. AutomationIs the technology by which a process or procedure is performed with minimum human assistance. Automation or automatic control is the use of various control systems for operating equipment such as machinery, processes in factories, boilers and heat treating ovens, switching on telephone networks, steering and stabilization of ships, aircraft and other applications and vehicles with minimal or reduced human intervention. Some processes have been completely automated. Autonomous vehicleA vehicle capable of driving from one point to another without input from a human operator. Azimuthal quantum numberThe azimuthal quantum number is a quantum number for an atomic orbital that determines its orbital angular momentum and describes the shape of the orbital. The azimuthal quantum number is the second of a set of quantum numbers which describe the unique quantum state of an electron (the others being the principal quantum number, following spectroscopic notation, the magnetic quantum number, and the spin quantum number). It is also known as the orbital angular momentum quantum number, orbital quantum number or second quantum number, and is symbolized as ℓ. BarometerA device for measuring pressure. BatteryElectrochemical cells that transform chemical energy into electricity.. BaseIn chemistry, bases are substances that, in aqueous solution, release hydroxide (OH−) ions, are slippery to the touch, can taste bitter if an alkali, change the color of indicators (e.g., turn red litmus paper blue), react with acids to form salts, promote certain chemical reactions (base catalysis), accept protons from any proton donor, and/or contain completely or partially displaceable OH− ions. BaudRate at which data is transferred in symbols/second; a symbol may represent one or more bits. BeamA structural element whose length is significantly greater than its width or height. Beer–Lambert lawThe Beer–Lambert law, also known as Beer's law, the Lambert–Beer law, or the Beer–Lambert–Bouguer law relates the attenuation of light to the properties of the material through which the light is travelling. The law is commonly applied to chemical analysis measurements and used in understanding attenuation in physical optics, for photons, neutrons or rarefied gases. In mathematical physics, this law arises as a solution of the BGK equation. BeltA closed loop of flexible material used to transmit mechancial power from one pulley to another. Belt frictionIs a term describing the friction forces between a belt and a surface, such as a belt wrapped around a bollard. When one end of the belt is being pulled only part of this force is transmitted to the other end wrapped about a surface. The friction force increases with the amount of wrap about a surface and makes it so the tension in the belt can be different at both ends of the belt. Belt friction can be modeled by the Belt friction equation. BendingIn applied mechanics, bending (also known as flexure) characterizes the behavior of a slender structural element subjected to an external load applied perpendicularly to a longitudinal axis of the element. The structural element is assumed to be such that at least one of its dimensions is a small fraction, typically 1/10 or less, of the other two. Benefit–cost analysisCost–benefit analysis (CBA), sometimes called benefit costs analysis (BCA), is a systematic approach to estimating the strengths and weaknesses of alternatives (for example in transactions, activities, functional business requirements); it is used to determine options that provide the best approach to achieve benefits while preserving savings. It may be used to compare potential (or completed) courses of actions; or estimate (or evaluate) the value against costs of a single decision, project, or policy.. Bending momentThe product of bending force and distance, measured in units of length * distance.. Bernoulli differential equationIn mathematics, an ordinary differential equation of the form: y ′ + P ( x ) y = Q ( x ) y n {\displaystyle y'+P(x)y=Q(x)y^{n},} is called a Bernoulli differential equation where n {\displaystyle n} is any real number and n ≠ 0 {\displaystyle n\neq 0} and n ≠ 1 {\displaystyle n\neq 1} . It is named after Jacob Bernoulli who discussed it in 1695. Bernoulli equations are special because they are nonlinear differential equations with known exact solutions. A famous special case of the Bernoulli equation is the logistic differential equation. Bernoulli's equationAn equation for relating several measurements within a fluid flow, such as velocity, pressure, and potential energy. Bernoulli's principleIn fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy. The principle is named after Daniel Bernoulli who published it in his book Hydrodynamica in 1738. Although Bernoulli deduced that pressure decreases when the flow speed increases, it was Leonhard Euler who derived Bernoulli's equation in its usual form in 1752. The principle is only applicable for isentropic flows: when the effects of irreversible processes (like turbulence) and non-adiabatic processes (e.g. heat radiation) are small and can be neglected. Beta particlealso called beta ray or beta radiation (symbol β), is a high-energy, high-speed electron or positron emitted by the radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus during the process of beta decay. There are two forms of beta decay, β− decay and β+ decay, which produce electrons and positrons respectively. Binomial distributionIn probability theory and statistics, the binomial distribution with parameters n and p is the discrete probability distribution of the number of successes in a sequence of n independent experiments, each asking a yes–no question, and each with its own boolean-valued outcome: a random variable containing a single bit of information: success/yes/true/one (with probability p) or failure/no/false/zero (with probability q = 1 − p). A single success/failure experiment is also called a Bernoulli trial or Bernoulli experiment and a sequence of outcomes is called a Bernoulli process; for a single trial, i.e., n = 1, the binomial distribution is a Bernoulli distribution. The binomial distribution is the basis for the popular binomial test of statistical significance. BiocatalysisBiocatalysis refers to the use of living (biological) systems or their parts to speed up (catalyze) chemical reactions. In biocatalytic processes, natural catalysts, such as enzymes, perform chemical transformations on organic compounds. Both enzymes that have been more or less isolated and enzymes still residing inside living cells are employed for this task. The modern usage of biotechnologically produced and possibly modified enzymes for organic synthesis is termed chemoenzymatic synthesis; the reactions performed are chemoenzymatic reactions. Biomedical engineeringBiomedical Engineering (BME) or Medical Engineering is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology for healthcare purposes (e.g. diagnostic or therapeutic). This field seeks to close the gap between engineering and medicine, combining the design and problem solving skills of engineering with medical biological sciences to advance health care treatment, including diagnosis, monitoring, and therapy. BiomimeticBiomimetics or biomimicry is the imitation of the models, systems, and elements of nature for the purpose of solving complex human problems. BionicsThe application of biological methods to engineering systems. BiophysicsIs an interdisciplinary science that applies approaches and methods traditionally used in physics to study biological phenomena. Biophysics covers all scales of biological organization, from molecular to organismic and populations. Biophysical research shares significant overlap with biochemistry, molecular biology, physical chemistry, physiology, nanotechnology, bioengineering, computational biology, biomechanics and systems biology. Biot numberThe Biot number (Bi) is a dimensionless quantity used in heat transfer calculations. It is named after the eighteenth century French physicist Jean-Baptiste Biot (1774–1862), and gives a simple index of the ratio of the heat transfer resistances inside of and at the surface of a body. This ratio determines whether or not the temperatures inside a body will vary significantly in space, while the body heats or cools over time, from a thermal gradient applied to its surface. Block and tackleA system of pulleys and a rope threaded between them, used to lift or pull heavy loads. Body forceIs a force that acts throughout the volume of a body. Forces due to gravity, electric fields and magnetic fields are examples of body forces. Body forces contrast with contact forces or surface forces which are exerted to the surface of an object.. BoilerIs a closed vessel in which fluid (generally water) is heated. The fluid does not necessarily boil. The heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications

Answer 2

When you are heating a beaker on a hot plate or even on a stove, the very bottom of the beaker is much hotter than the rest of the solution, especially if the solution is not very well stirred. The heat moves from the hot plate, through the bottom of the beaker and into the solution. Then the heat is transferred throughout the solution, but not instantly. So the heat is not distributed perfectly evenly throughout -- the top and sides of the container will be slightly cooler than the bottom. If the solution is stirred very strongly, the temperature won't be so uneven, but no matter water, the bottom of the beaker will be somewhat hotter than the rest of the solution. If the thermometer is touching the bottom of the beaker, it will read a hotter temperature than is real temperature of the solution.

Answer 3

Allowing the thermometer to touch the bottom of the beaker can result in a false reading due to heat transfer from the hot surface to the thermometer. This can lead to inaccurate temperature measurement. Keeping the thermometer suspended in the liquid allows for a more accurate reading of the liquid's temperature.

Answer 4

This is because of the need to avoid the transfer of heat/cold either to or from the thermometer affecting the temperature reading, otherwise the indicated and actual temperatures will be different.

Answer 5

if the thermometer touches the buttom or the side of the be aker you will get the temperture of the beaker and not the boiling water