What is the difference between sylheti and bengali language?

What does bahla bachi mean in bengali syletti?

"Bahla bachi" in Bengali Sylheti means "good girl" or "well-behaved girl." It is commonly used as a term of endearment or to praise someone's behavior, especially among younger people or in familial contexts.

Do the majority of bangladeshis speak Bangla or sylheti?

Most Bangladeshis in the United Kingdom do speak Sylheti as the vast majority of the Bangladeshi population in the UK hail from the Sylhet district of Bangladesh. However in Bangladesh,syheti is only confined to the Sylhet district.

Where is sylheti spoken?

Sylheti is primarily spoken in the Sylhet Division of Bangladesh, as well as in parts of the Indian states of Assam, Tripura, and Meghalaya. It is also spoken in expatriate communities around the world, especially in the United Kingdom, where a significant Sylheti diaspora resides.

How do you say I hate you in bengali?

ami tumare bala fai na - sylheti or ami tumake balo pai na means i dont find you to my liking. Ame tumake posondo kori nah. means i dont like you.

How many people speak syhlet?

Sylheti not syhlet. Sylheti is the language of the Surma valley region, consisting of most of Sylhet Division in Bangladesh and Cachar District in Assam, and is spoken by over 9 million people. It is related to the rural dialects of eastern Bengal, but with a high proportion of words derived from Persian and Arabic, and a distinct grammar.

What is the futki?

In Bangladeshi (Sylheti) Futki means rear end.

Many NHS patients cannot speak English. Which foreign language is most required in the NHS?

Knowledge of any of the 10 most common Immigrant languages would be an advantage. They are:Polish 546,000 or 1.0%Punjabi 273,000 or 0.5%Urdu 269,000 or 0.5%Bengali (with Sylheti and Chatgaya) 221,000 or 0.4%Gujarati 213,000 or 0.4%Arabic 159,000 or 0.3%French 147,000 or 0.3%Chinese 141,000 or 0.3%Portuguese 133,000 or 0.2%Spanish 120,000 or 0.2%

What languages are part of the Indo-European language family?

Gheg ToskArbÃ«resh Arvanitic Carian Hittite Luwian Lycian Lydian Palaic Armenian Modern Armenian EasternArmenian WesternArmenian Homshetsi Lomavren Proto-Armenian(extinct) ClassicalArmenian(extinct) MiddleArmenian(extinct) Latvian Latgalian Lithuanian Samogitian OldPrussian Curonian Galindian Selonian Semigallian Sudovian/Yotvingian Continental Celtic Gaulish Lepontic Galatian Celtiberian Insular Celtic Goidelic Irish Scottish Gaelic Manx Shelta(cant) Brythonic Welsh Breton Cornish Cumbric EastGermanic Gothic Vandalic Burgundian Crimean Gothic North Germanic East Danish Swedish Norwegian BokmÃ¥l West Icelandic Faroese Norn Norwegian Nynorsk German Yiddish Luxembourgish Low German Dutch Afrikaans North Frisian Saterland Frisian West Frisian English Scots East Greek Mycenaean Greek Attic-Ionic Attic Greek Koine Greek Modern Greek Dhimotiki Katharevousa Yevanic Greek Cypriot Greek Griko Cappadocian Greek Pontic Greek Romano-Greek Ionic Greek Aeolic Greek Arcado-Cypriot Greek West Greek Doric Greek Tsakonian Greek Northwestern Greek Bagheli Chhattisgarhi Dhanwar Fijian Hindustani Eastern Indo-Aryan Bengali-Assamese Assamese Bengali Bishnupriya Manipuri Chakma Chittagonian Hajong Halbi KhariaThar Kayort MalPaharia Mirgan Nahari Rajbangsi Sylheti Tangchangya Bihari Angika Bhojpuri Caribbean Hindustani Kudmali Magadhi Maithili Majhi Musasa OraonSadri Panchpargania Sadri Surajpuri Oriya Adivasi Oriya Bhatri Bhunjia Bodo Parja Kupia Oriya Relli Northwestern Indo-Aryan Dardic Chitral Kalasha-mun Khowar Kashmiri Kohistani Bateri Chilisso Gowro Indus Kohistani Kalami Kalkoti Tirahi Torwali Wotapuri-Katarqalai Kunar Pashayi NortheastPashayi NorthwestPashayi SoutheastPashayi SouthwestPashayi Dameli Gawar-Bati Grangali Shumashti Shina Brokstat Domaaki Kohistani Shina Phalura Savi Shina Ushojo Lahnda Saraiki Jakati Khetrani Mirpur Panjabi Northern Hindko Saraiki Southern Hindko Western Panjabi Gujarati Kachchi Sindhi Jadgali Lasi Sindhi Sindhi Bhil Nuristani Askunu Kamkata-viri Vasi-vari Tregami Kalasha-ala Sanskrit Sinhalese-Maldivian Maldivian Sinhala Veddah Katkari Konkani Kukna Phudagi Samvedi Varli Marathi Bhalay Deccan Gowlan Romani Varhadi-Nagpuri Ossetian Yagnobi Southeastern Iranian Western Iranian Northwestern Iranian Southwestern Iranian Italic Sabellic Oscan Volscian Umbrian Latino-Faliscan Faliscan Latin Vulgar Latin Romance Venetic Paleo-Balkan Ancient Macedonian Dacian Thracian Illyrian Messapian Paionian Phrygian Slavic Proto-Slavic East Slavic Belarusian Russian Rusyn Ukrainian SouthSlavic Old Church Slavonic Bosnian Bulgarian Croatian Macedonian Montenegrin Serbian Slovene West Slavic Czech Kashubian Polish Silesian (disputed) Slovak LowerSorbian UpperSorbian Polabian(extinct) Knaanic(extinct) Tocharian Tocharian A Tocharian B

What is rice and curry made of?

Rice and curry is the de facto national dish of Sri Lanka, and as a generic term for how curry is served in parts of India & South Asia. The banal name hides a range of delicately spiced dishes. A typical Sri Lankan rice and curry dinner will comprise the following: * A large bowl of rice, most often boiled, but frequently fried. Sometimes Kiribath, rice cooked in coconut milk, is served. * A curry of meat, most often chicken or fish but occasionally goat & lamb * Dahl, spiced lentils * A vegetable curry, perhaps of green beans, jackfruit or leeks. * Papadums, a thin crisp wafer made from legume or rice flour and served as a side dish. * Sambals, which are fresh chutney side dishes; they may include red onion, chili, grated coconut or lime juice, and are often the hottest part of the meal. Apart from the rice, each bowl contains small portions, but as in most of tropical Asia, if a bowl is emptied, it is immediately refilled. Although Sri Lankan food is similar to south Indian cuisine in its use of chilli, cardamom, cumin, coriander and other spices, it has a distinctive taste, and uses ingredients like dried Maldive fish which are local to the area. It is also much hotter than most south Indian cuisine, and many spicy Sri Lankan preparations are believed to be among the world's hottest in terms of chilli content (second only to Sylheti) . While native Sri Lankans are born into this cuisine and develop a healthy tolerance to spicy food, many visitors and tourists to the country often find the spiciness excessive. As a result, many local restaurants in developed and tourist areas offer special low-spice versions of local foods to cater to foreign palates, or have an alternative western menu for tourists.

what is the relationship between humans and (gods) in Islamic religion?

divine. Secular spirituality is made up of the search for meaning outside of a religious institution; it considers one's relationship with the self, others, nature, and whatever else one considers to be the ultimate. Often, the goal of secular spirituality is living happily and/or helping others.According to the American philosopher Robert C. Solomon, "spirituality is coextensive with religion and it is not incompatible with or opposed to science or the scientific outlook. Naturalized spirituality is spirituality without any need for the 'other‐worldly'. Spirituality is one of the goals, perhaps the ultimate goal, of philosophy." Cornel W Du Toit, head of the Research Institute for Theology and Religion at the University of South Africa, suggests secular spirituality is unique in that it adapts so well to modern world views, and is therefore compatible with other modern beliefs and ways of life, building community through shared experiences of "awe". Peter Van der Veer also argues an important aspect of secular spirituality is its promotion of community, creating solidarity through shared universal truth. This 'universal truth' can be experienced through a secular or non-religious world view, without the need for a concept of 'higher power' or a 'supernatural being'. Instances of secular spirituality are mediated differently, as instances of awe can be encouraged through a diversity of unique environments and situations. In the 21st century, individuals increasingly connect with the secularly spiritual through technology. As follows, the connection between contemporary spiritual practices and technology is deepening profoundly. Some traditionally religious practices have been adapted by secular practitioners under strictly spiritual understandings, such as yoga and mindfulness meditation. Secular spirituality affects education, relationships to nature, and community togetherness. Secular spirituality emphasizes humanistic qualities such as love, compassion, patience, forgiveness, responsibility, harmony and a concern for others. Du Toit argues aspects of life and human experience which go beyond a purely materialistic view of the world are spiritual; spirituality does not require belief in a supernatural reality or divine being. Mindfulness and meditation can be practiced in order to cherish, foster, and promote the development of one's empathy and manage selfish drivers of behavior, with solicitude and forgiveness. This can be experienced as beneficial, or even necessary for human fulfillment, without any supernatural interpretation or explanation. Spirituality in this context may be a matter of nurturing thoughts, emotions, words and actions that are in harmony with a belief that everything in the universe is mutually dependent. Scholar Daniel Dennett suggests spirituality as connected to "awe and joy and sense of peace and wonder," explaining "people make a mistake of thinking spirituality... has anything to do with either religious doctrines... or the supernatural," instead claiming spirituality can be and is often entirely secular. However critics suggest that because 'secular spirituality' does not reference theistic, supernatural or any 'other-worldly' constructs it cannot be truly considered spirituality — without some non-ordinary /supernatural element, the dissenters argue that spirituality boils down to being nothing more than a synonym for humanism. Cornel W Du Toit is a professor at the University of South Africa, who completed his studies at the Institute for Theology and Missiology. Du Toit defines "secular spirituality" as a contemporary phenomenon of spirituality experienced in spheres separate from structured, institutionalized religion. Du Toit cites Alister E. McGrath's definition of spirituality in his discussion of the secularly spiritual, arguing that spirituality generally concerns: "the quest for a fulfilled and authentic life, involving the bringing together of the ideas distinctive of ... [some] religion and the whole experience of living on the basis of and within the scope of that religion." Du Toit argues that, as a contemporary phenomenon, secular spirituality is different than earlier spiritualities. A number of changes in prevailing worldviews have affected the concept of spirituality. The concept of spirituality means something different in the current techno-scientific world than it did in a world of phantoms, magic, gods, and demons, in which humans believed themselves to be at the mercy of forces they could not control. Du Toit believes that the increase in scientific explanations for what were previously seen as spiritual, "unexplainable" instances of awe, has increased individuals' tendency to call any experience that seems special "spiritual." Du Toit argues that any realm can evoke an experience of spirituality whether it may be reading a novel, watching a movie or going on a hike.Secular spirituality is not a new religion, but rather the potential for all experiences to assume a spiritual quality, not limited to any one religious or transcendent realm. Du Toit argues that industrialism has led to an increase in materialism in the West. Du Toit further argues that materialism has contributed to a more individualistic Western culture, which underpins secularism. In saying this, though Du Toit connects secularism to individualism, Du Toit maintains that secular spirituality is inherently communal, as he argues that while instances of awe can be experienced individually, they ultimately contribute to the collective – as these instances of awe can motivate people to influence others and nature. Du Toit argues that if they do not meaningfully contribute to the collective, they can not be considered secular spiritual experiences. Du Toit argues that "the spiritual experiences was never an end in itself... [as] any spirituality that does not produce service is false. Peter Van der Veer suggests secular spirituality began with the emphasis on forming group identities, both national and political, and the need for these communities to share a spiritual identity. For Van der Veer, secular spirituality arose in communities through the simultaneous rise of secularism and spirituality, as well as their interaction in the context of nineteenth century globalization. He identifies spirituality, the secular, and religion as three interacting but independent concepts that create frameworks for different systems of belief. For Van der Veer the combination of the spiritual and the secular allows the bridging of discursive traditions in the global-historical context which preserves identities of the communities who share spiritual beliefs across national boundaries.Van der Veer suggests the phenomenon of secular spirituality develops as many different expressions of belief because of the inconsistent integration of spirituality into secular society within social, market and political spaces. Secular spirituality reflects individualism and self-reflexivity through forming group identities outside of a modern geopolitical context. Secular spirituality does not imply rejecting modern ideas of liberalism, socialism or science, but instead exists as a parallel reading of the discourse with contemporary society. Van der Veer identifies the use of these contemporary ideas to create communities of individuals who share secular interests in a system of awesome belief as instances of secular spirituality. Kim Knott focuses specifically on the secular sacred, in her discussion of secular spirituality. More specifically, Knott focuses on the possibility of experiencing the sacred outside the context of institutionalized religion. She believes that the sacred functions both within and outside of a theological context through the beliefs of individual persons. Knott deconstructs the common conceptional separation of the sacred from the profane. She argues that the concept of religion should not be conflated with the concept of the sacred, and that the concept of the secular should not be conflated with the concept of the profane. Throughout the enlightenment this separation between religion and the spiritual has occurred, as wilderness sites, marshes, coves, and other sites have been called sacred or spiritual places, without having religious influence or belonging to a religion. In this understanding, the sacred is based in nature as these sacred sites serve in an individual's spatial sacred experience. In Knott's view, individuals experience the sacred through embodiment, spatiality, and the awareness of one's body and the spaces inside and around it. As the basis of the sacred it becomes an operative connection within boundary crossing situations taking place inside and outside the human body and the inhabited territory. Religions and religious movements have strong online presence, which are often discussed in the academic study of digital religion under two categories: "religion-online" and "online-religion." As coined by Christopher Helland, "religion-online" is understood as "importing traditional forms of religion online", while "online-religion" is uniquely secularly spiritual, in that it "[creates] new forms of networked spiritual interactions," promoting discussions of ritual and 'awe'-filled moments within a secular, online community. Because of the Internet's ability to "cross social and cultural borders", Helland argues that this has created "non-threatening environment" that is ideal for anonymous users to engage in "spiritual searching." Online spiritual discussion outside of the aegis of any particular religious movement is often thought to have begun with and have been most influenced by "Communitree", a "California-based online social networking system". The "Origins" board on Communitree promoted "open-ended forms of religious discussion", resulting in an unofficial "set of religious and quasi-religious beliefs and practices that is not accepted, recognized or controlled by official religious groups." Scholars often associate Communitree with personal religiosity and individualized spirituality, as this entirely secular platform allowed for conversation to occur without a "set doctrine, code of ethics or group of religious professionals to regulate belief and practices". Outside of Communitree, the Internet contains countless forums, websites, and messaging systems. These platforms allow for information regarding spiritual ideas to be accessed, and connections to be made between those who are offering or seeking spiritual advice. A defining feature of secular spirituality is that instances of secular spirituality can occur in any realm. In the present techno-scientific age, spiritual practices are increasingly mediated through technology. For many religious people, technology can be seen as an alienating force – "the encapsulation of human rationality" – that competes with religion and spirituality as opposed to mediating or facilitating religion and spirituality. The recognition of a spiritual dimension of technology represents a recent shift in the discussion. According to philosopher Jay Newman, "technology's very success is contributing to the realization of ideals such as freedom, knowledge, happiness, and peace." This may lead people to believe that "technology is a proper successor to religion", but this is certainly not the case in sociological trends. General levels of religiosity in the West have barely declined since the Enlightenment period. The current "attribution of spiritual meaning to the digital realm" represents a remarkable change in how spirituality has traditionally been mediated. Secular spirituality is a phenomenon that recognizes the link between technology and spirituality, as opposed to viewing technology as in competition with spirituality. The popularity of the 'yoga' in the West is integrally linked to secularization. This secularization began in India in the 1930s, when yoga teachers began to look for ways to make yoga accessible to the general public who did not have the opportunity to practice yoga as part of the Hindu faith. As such, yoga began to move from the realm of religion to the realm of secularity, promoting Yoga as a non-Hindu practice both within the West and East. Yoga has undeniably Hindu roots, first mentioned in the Katha Upanisad. Despite these roots, yoga has been secularized, and often referred to as being "ancient Indian," "Eastern," or "Sanskritic," rather than as Hindu due to a desire to avoid any religious connotations. Modern Western yoga is thought to "not require adoption of religious beliefs or dogma," despite Hindu origins. In the West, yoga has been "modernized, medicalized, and transformed into a system of physical culture". This system of physical culture has transformed yoga "into an individualized spirituality of the self", creating an activity that is very popular within secular societies, drawing off portrayals of yoga as "mystical, experiential and individualistic." Western yoga students cite health, fitness, and stress reduction as reasons for yogic practice, rather than traditional Hindu motivations and goals such as enlightenment. However, many practice in order to reach "contemplative states of consciousness and spirituality", a goal that falls within the realm of secular spirituality. In a study of Ashram residents, researchers found residents were more likely to respond they had an "experience of oneness" during or after a yoga class and felt more "in touch with divine or spiritual" after a class than control groups, leaving researchers to believe yoga practice enhances transformational processes, including spiritual states. Meditation was invented by Taoists in the 7th century BC, while Taoism is regarded by many as a secular philosophy, when it arrived in India it branched out and was soon Indianized and mystified, giving religious explanations for the meditation practices. Meditation is considered a "spiritual alternative" to conventional values and goals, such as those found in traditional Western religions. Mindfulness-based stress reduction, while traditionally linked to the Buddhist understanding of Samadhi, has become medicalized in the secular aim of reducing illness, rather than the traditional Buddhist goal of liberation from the suffering that occurs in worldly experiences. As such, this medicalized, secularized version of meditation has been allowed into secular institutions within Western society, such as hospitals and schools. Research done at Bowling Green State University has shown that mindfulness practitioners who identify as spiritual, as opposed to non-spiritual, benefit more fully from mindfulness practice, and more significantly decreasing their anxiety, increasing the positivity of their moods and increasing their ability to tolerate pain. The Dalai Lama has promoted global exportation of meditation as a "human practice," rather than strictly religious. As such, the secular nature of meditation "for the goal of universal human benefit" is emphasized, allowing for secular, spiritual but non-religious participation. An additional human benefit occurring as a result of meditative practice is a sense of community between practitioners. While meditation is entirely individual, it also relies on and creates social connection, building community through shared spirituality despite secular contexts. Marisa Crawford points to the importance of including secular spirituality in the Canadian curriculum. Crawford argues that a push for a secular public education system deprives students of the opportunity to explore life's "ultimate questions of heart and soul." Crawford believes that there is a way to integrate spirituality into the secular sphere without indoctrination. She advocates allowing students to investigate how individuals and cultures have addressed spiritual concerns and issues. Public schools in Canada generally exclude the spiritual or transcendent dimension of human life from their explanation of religion and have thus bought into a brand of secularism that has excluded spirituality, giving students the false impression that spirituality has never been an important part of the human experience. Crawford argues that the deflection of students' questions about religion or spirituality is commonplace and contributes to misunderstandings and ignorance about religion and spirituality.According to Crawford, knowledge about religion and spirituality is essential for understanding and living in a pluralistic society. While textbooks include explanations of the rituals and practices of certain religious groups, textbooks rarely discuss religion's role in shaping human thought and action. In British Columbia, the School Act states that public schools must be conducted on "strictly secular and non-sectarian principles," thereby alienating young people to "questions that both enliven and vex the human spirit." Lois Sweet argues that "public schools must begin to examine ways to include the spiritual dimension of human existence in a non-indoctrinating way," by teaching worldviews that are sensitive to religious differences and by emphasizing the features of religion and spirituality that overlap. Sweet points to the fact that the requirement for secularism in Canadian public schools simply signals the need for "educational decisions and policies, whatever their motivation, to respect the multiplicity of religious and moral views that are held by families in the school community," not to ignore their discussion.According to a UNESCO report on education: "It is thus education's noble task to encourage each and every one, acting in accordance with their traditions and convictions and paying full respect to pluralism, to lift their minds and spirits to the plane of the universal and, in some measure, to transcend themselves." According to Crawford, excluding religion from the curriculum endorses a passive hostility towards all religious points of view. According to Thomas Groome, by nurturing a sacramental cosmology – an awareness that each aspect of life manifests visible signs of invisible grace – educators can promote an attitude of reverence and gratitude for the world. He argues that doing so can encourage students to "bring light to the thousands of wonders and transcendent signals in the ordinary things of life ...contemplating the world with a gaze of faith that encourages seeking meaning and celebrating instances of awe." Through integrating a sacramental cosmology into the Canadian Public Education system, Groome argues that students will have more opportunities to understand and appreciate the web of humanity – including love, friendship, and "the intricate and consistent designs and patterns of science ... leading to contemplative wonder that is rooted in compassionate and loving relationships that embrace meaningful knowing." Crawford argues that the curriculum will have to avoid promoting one particular religious or irreligious point of view. The curriculum would have to introduce students to a diversity of worldviews and spiritual options "allowing them critical access to alternative traditions so that informed insight and wisdom may flourish through the development of spiritual literacy." Nurse and researcher Kathleen Fischer notes that nature is a common context for a secular spiritual experience. In her view, individuals can foster a connection to the sacred through experiencing nature with an openness to joy and wonder. According to Fischer, spirituality is the broader reality, the search for meaning and purpose for those who long to discover a deeper dimension to their lives. She characterizes spiritual experience as being rooted in the feeling of awe in nature, which, in her words, may be inspired by sensing "the intricacy, majesty, and beauty of creation: the delicate mist that arises from the spray of a waterfall, a hummingbird hovering at a flowering bush, white beaches bordering turquoise waters." Fischer's work is intended to affirm that not only that the lives of human beings, but all aspects of nature, are filled with a sacred mystery or power. In Fischer's own experience, the sacred power of spirituality has deepened and extended her spiritual practices, such as meditation or deep reflection to maintain strong mental wellbeing.Through researching Aboriginal Australian groups, Vicki Grieves has begun using research on their spiritual lives as a method for analyzing and interpreting the contemporary development of Australian Aboriginal groups. Australian Aboriginal spirituality while diverse seems to attend to similar themes on the sacredness of nature that is seen in Fischer's work. Australian Aboriginals are often taught that life is a sacred hoop in which everything has a place. All elements of nature, whether plants, animals, or insects, should be treated with the same respect as humans. Grieves believes that Aboriginal Australian spiritualities deep connection to nature builds a strong community belief system which has the potential to unite all living beings. Through researching Australian Aboriginal spirituality Grieves has noted how "spirituality stems from a philosophy that establishes the wholistic notion of the interconnectedness of the elements of the earth and the universe, animate and inanimate." As part of her research, Grieves conducted a focus group with an inter-city contemporary Aboriginal group in Australia to better understand the impact spirituality has on their lives. This inter-city group described spirituality as a feeling of interconnectedness to their people's past, of community and a connectedness with land and nature. It is through spirituality that these inter-city aboriginals attained "knowledge, inner strength, and a better understanding of their cultural roots" contributing to feelings of "acceptance, balance and focus" as well as an overall sense of "deep wellbeing". Chicano spirituality is a form of Mexicanism; a nationalist spiritual ideology that developed in Mexico and the Southern United States in the 1960s as a response to political and cultural mistreatment by both Mexican and American law. Chicano spirituality uses a combination of rituals from the Mexica, popular Catholic traditions, and secular Mexican traditions to forge an identity for the Chicano people. Chicanos understand their identity to be that of an independent ethnic minority in between Indigenous and Hispanic people, as such blending secular ethnic positionality with a variety of spiritual traditions. The Chicano identify as heirs to the Aztec lineage, and use this genealogy to justify their demands for territory and recognition in civil rights. Aztlán is the imagined territory that is the centre of the Anhuac tribes of whom the Chicano claim to be descendants. Aztlán is identified by the Chicano as the first settlement of the Anhuac people in North America before their southern migration to found the Aztec Empire. Chicano spiritual practice includes the celebration of Mexican civic holidays, and uniquely Chicano-Mexicanist rites of passage. One ritual, called Xilonen, is a rite of passage celebrated by fifteen-year-old Chicano girls that symbolically teaches them the place of women in the social order and in families. In the context of the modern Chicano movement, the Chicano identity is used to transcend the modern national boundaries of Mexico and the United States as a distinct population. The territory of Atzlán allows the Chicano to justify their separation from other ethnic and cultural groups in these countries by providing them with Aztec ancestors, and a historical connection to territory in what is now the southern United States. The idea of the Aztlán homeland is imaginary, but supported by factors in pre-Hispanic history, allows the Chicano to more firmly stake their position to be recognized as a form of secular spirituality occurring in communities in both Mexico and the United States that desires political recognition of their minority identity as a tool to engage in contemporary society. The three main arguments that the Chicano use in their fight for a distinct political identity are that the origin of the Chicano ancestors, the Nahua tribes were in North America, that until 1848 the modern national boundaries between Mexico and the United States were not set, and that there is a history of transient Mexican workers in the United States. By claiming a historical link to territory in both countries, the Chicano distinguish themselves as developing a cultural identity separate from either. Chicano spirituality is a combination of American and Mexican encounters with modern politics of human rights. English rhetorician I.A. Richards has argued that the lack of a word for spirituality in Sanskrit makes it possible for the concept to be used in a nationalist capacity that transcends individual traditions. Mohandas Gandhi's principle in establishing Indian National Spirituality was that each person could discover a universal truth in the Indian struggle with British colonialism. His vision of Indian National Spirituality transcended the bounds of individual religious traditions, to enact a shared nationalist fervour in the fight for independence. Gandhi's Indian National Spirituality was an adaption of Hindu tradition in light of Western thought proposed an independent India to operate within. Gandhi used the Hindu principle of Sarva Dharma Sambhava which argues that all religions are equal as a way to invite participation of minority communities in his vision of a politically independent India. Gandhi's national spirituality relied on the entire population of India presenting themselves as a united front against colonialism. After the Lucknow Pact of 1916 Gandhi was forced as an act of Indian congress to give separate political representation to Muslims, and later to Sikhs. Gandhi felt that separating them from the political whole was a "vivisection" of Indian National spirituality as formed a shared ideology for fight for Indian Nationalism.In addition to arguing for religious equality in India, Gandhi's ideology called for the equality of humankind, a secularly spiritual demand based on peace and kindness for the betterment of all. He believed that Indian National Spirituality would allow the East to be an example to the West in promoting national communities tied by belief. Gandhi saw the endemic oppression of the Dalit or untouchable population by the caste system of Hinduism as a heinous institution. He promoted embracing the Dalit population as also being Harijan or children of God, and the British programs implemented to raise Dalit status through educational and employment opportunity programs. Responses to Indian national spirituality Gandhi's proposed universalist national spiritual identity for India faced criticism by both religious and secular nationalist groups. Hindu Nationalists opposed an all-encompassing spiritual tradition that accepted Muslims. They believed that being forced to share an identity with a group of the population that they saw as foreign would be another form of colonial emasculation.Another response to the universalism of Indian National Spirituality as proposed by Gandhi was by B. R. Ambedkar in the fight for the Dalit. Ambedkar criticized the use of Hinduism as a basis for a universal spirituality because of the implied inequality of the embedded caste system. He saw the lack of mobility between castes and the systematic oppression of the Dalits, the lowest caste in the Hindu system, as necessitating a political separation from their oppressors in a contemporary Indian legal situation. Ambedkar believed that the community of the Dalit had to divorce itself from Hindu tradition in order to escape caste based oppression, explaining that Dalit problem "would never be solved unless [the Dalit] got political power in their own hands." Ambedkar's method for achieving the goals of the Dalit meant that their identity needed to be reimagined as secular, separate from the Hindu caste system. Ambedkar used conversion to Buddhism as a means to promote the Dalit cause through a different spiritual framework than Gandhi's Indian National Spirituality. In 1956 Ambedkar and a number of his Dalit followers converted from Hinduism to Buddhism. The conversion was symbolic shift for the untouchable community to escape the implications of the Hindu caste system on the Dalit population in a secular realm. The tradition of Buddhism was seen by Ambedkar as "a guide for right relations between man and man in all spheres of life," embodying the egalitarian character missing from Indian society. He hoped that converting the Dalit population to a religion that lacked a caste system would help to create a situation in which they had equal human rights in India as a minority group. Ambedkar's interpretation of Buddhism was based on a secular and this-worldly reading, wherein suffering was defined as the oppression of one culture by another, and freedom from suffering, and nirvana defined as righteous behaviour on earth between all people. Arabic (اَلْعَرَبِيَّةُ, al-ʿarabiyyah, [al ʕaraˈbijːa] (listen) or عَرَبِيّ‎, ʿarabīy, [ˈʕarabiː] (listen) or [ʕaraˈbij]) is a Semitic language that first emerged in the 1st to 4th centuries CE. It is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. It is named after the Arabs, a term initially used to describe peoples living in the area bounded by Mesopotamia in the east and the Anti-Lebanon mountains in the west, in Northwestern Arabia and in the Sinai Peninsula. The ISO assigns language codes to thirty varieties of Arabic, including its standard form, Modern Standard Arabic, also referred to as Literary Arabic, which is modernized Classical Arabic. This distinction exists primarily among Western linguists; Arabic speakers themselves generally do not distinguish between Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic, but rather refer to both as al-ʿarabiyyatu l-fuṣḥā (اَلعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْفُصْحَىٰ, "the purest Arabic") or simply al-fuṣḥā (اَلْفُصْحَىٰ). Modern Standard Arabic is an official language of 26 states and 1 disputed territory, the third most after English and FrenchArabic is widely taught in schools and universities and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government and the media. Arabic, in its standard form, is the official language of 26 states, as well as the liturgical language of the religion of Islam, since the Quran and Hadith were written in Arabic. During the Middle Ages, Arabic was a major vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As a result, many European languages have also borrowed many words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary, is seen in European languages—mainly Spanish and to a lesser extent Portuguese and Catalan—owing to both the proximity of Christian European and Muslim Arab civilizations and the long-lasting Arabic culture and language presence mainly in Southern Iberia during the Al-Andalus era. Sicilian has about 500 Arabic words, many of which relate to agriculture and related activities, as a legacy of the Emirate of Sicily from the early-9th to late-11th centuries, while Maltese language is a Semitic language developed from a dialect of Arabic and written in the Latin alphabet. The Balkan languages, including Greek and Bulgarian, have also acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has influenced many other languages around the globe throughout its history. Some of the most influenced languages are Persian, Turkish, Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu), Kashmiri, Kurdish, Bosnian, Kazakh, Bengali, Malay (Indonesian and Malaysian), Maldivian, Pashto, Punjabi, Albanian, Armenian, Azerbaijani, Sicilian, Spanish, Greek, Bulgarian, Tagalog, Sindhi, Odia and Hausa and some languages in parts of Africa. Conversely, Arabic has borrowed words from other languages, including Hebrew, Greek, Aramaic, and Persian in medieval times and languages such as English and French in modern times. Arabic is the liturgical language of 1.8 billion Muslims, and Arabic is one of six official languages of the United Nations. All varieties of Arabic combined are spoken by perhaps as many as 422 million speakers (native and non-native) in the Arab world, making it the fifth most spoken language in the world. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet, which is an abjad script and is written from right to left, although the spoken varieties are sometimes written in ASCII Latin from left to right with no standardized orthography. Arabic is usually, but not universally, classified as a Central Semitic language. It is related to languages in other subgroups of the Semitic language group (Northwest Semitic, South Semitic, East Semitic, West Semitic), such as Aramaic, Syriac, Hebrew, Ugaritic, Phoenician, Canaanite, Amorite, Ammonite, Eblaite, epigraphic Ancient North Arabian, epigraphic Ancient South Arabian, Ethiopic, Modern South Arabian, and numerous other dead and modern languages. Linguists still differ as to the best classification of Semitic language sub-groups. The Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the emergence of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include: The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation (jalas-) into a past tense. The conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation (yajlis-) into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms (e.g., a present tense formed by doubling the middle root, a perfect formed by infixing a /t/ after the first root consonant, probably a jussive formed by a stress shift) in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms (e.g., -u for indicative, -a for subjunctive, no ending for jussive, -an or -anna for energetic). The development of an internal passive.There are several features which Classical Arabic, the modern Arabic varieties, as well as the Safaitic and Hismaic inscriptions share which are unattested in any other Central Semitic language variety, including the Dadanitic and Taymanitic languages of the northern Hejaz. These features are evidence of common descent from a hypothetical ancestor, Proto-Arabic. The following features can be reconstructed with confidence for Proto-Arabic: negative particles m * /mā/; lʾn */lā-ʾan/ to Classical Arabic lan mafʿūl G-passive participle prepositions and adverbs f, ʿn, ʿnd, ḥt, ʿkdy a subjunctive in -a t-demonstratives leveling of the -at allomorph of the feminine ending ʾn complementizer and subordinator the use of f- to introduce modal clauses independent object pronoun in (ʾ)y vestiges of nunation Arabia boasted a wide variety of Semitic languages in antiquity. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family (e.g. Southern Thamudic) were spoken. It is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages (non-Central Semitic languages) were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hejaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages. In Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested. In eastern Arabia, inscriptions in a script derived from ASA attest to a language known as Hasaitic. Finally, on the northwestern frontier of Arabia, various languages known to scholars as Thamudic B, Thamudic D, Safaitic, and Hismaic are attested. The last two share important isoglosses with later forms of Arabic, leading scholars to theorize that Safaitic and Hismaic are in fact early forms of Arabic and that they should be considered Old Arabic.Linguists generally believe that "Old Arabic" (a collection of related dialects that constitute the precursor of Arabic) first emerged around the 1st century CE. Previously, the earliest attestation of Old Arabic was thought to be a single 1st century CE inscription in Sabaic script at Qaryat Al-Faw, in southern present-day Saudi Arabia. However, this inscription does not participate in several of the key innovations of the Arabic language group, such as the conversion of Semitic mimation to nunation in the singular. It is best reassessed as a separate language on the Central Semitic dialect continuum.It was also thought that Old Arabic coexisted alongside—and then gradually displaced--epigraphic Ancient North Arabian (ANA), which was theorized to have been the regional tongue for many centuries. ANA, despite its name, was considered a very distinct language, and mutually unintelligible, from "Arabic". Scholars named its variant dialects after the towns where the inscriptions were discovered (Dadanitic, Taymanitic, Hismaic, Safaitic). However, most arguments for a single ANA language or language family were based on the shape of the definite article, a prefixed h-. It has been argued that the h- is an archaism and not a shared innovation, and thus unsuitable for language classification, rendering the hypothesis of an ANA language family untenable. Safaitic and Hismaic, previously considered ANA, should be considered Old Arabic due to the fact that they participate in the innovations common to all forms of Arabic.The earliest attestation of continuous Arabic text in an ancestor of the modern Arabic script are three lines of poetry by a man named Garm(')allāhe found in En Avdat, Israel, and dated to around 125 CE. This is followed by the epitaph of the Lakhmid king Mar 'al-Qays bar 'Amro, dating to 328 CE, found at Namaraa, Syria. From the 4th to the 6th centuries, the Nabataean script evolves into the Arabic script recognizable from the early Islamic era. There are inscriptions in an undotted, 17-letter Arabic script dating to the 6th century CE, found at four locations in Syria (Zabad, Jabal 'Usays, Harran, Umm al-Jimaal). The oldest surviving papyrus in Arabic dates to 643 CE, and it uses dots to produce the modern 28-letter Arabic alphabet. The language of that papyrus and of the Qur'an are referred to by linguists as "Quranic Arabic", as distinct from its codification soon thereafter into "Classical Arabic". In late pre-Islamic times, a transdialectal and transcommunal variety of Arabic emerged in the Hejaz which continued living its parallel life after literary Arabic had been institutionally standardized in the 2nd and 3rd century of the Hijra, most strongly in Judeo-Christian texts, keeping alive ancient features eliminated from the "learned" tradition (Classical Arabic). This variety and both its classicizing and "lay" iterations have been termed Middle Arabic in the past, but they are thought to continue an Old Higazi register. It is clear that the orthography of the Qur'an was not developed for the standardized form of Classical Arabic; rather, it shows the attempt on the part of writers to record an archaic form of Old Higazi. In the late 6th century AD, a relatively uniform intertribal "poetic koine" distinct from the spoken vernaculars developed based on the Bedouin dialects of Najd, probably in connection with the court of al-Ḥīra. During the first Islamic century, the majority of Arabic poets and Arabic-writing persons spoke Arabic as their mother tongue. Their texts, although mainly preserved in far later manuscripts, contain traces of non-standardized Classical Arabic elements in morphology and syntax. The standardization of Classical Arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century. The first comprehensive description of the ʿarabiyya "Arabic", Sībawayhi's al-Kitāb, is based first of all upon a corpus of poetic texts, in addition to Qur'an usage and Bedouin informants whom he considered to be reliable speakers of the ʿarabiyya. By the 8th century, knowledge of Classical Arabic had become an essential prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world. Charles Ferguson's koine theory (Ferguson 1959) claims that the modern Arabic dialects collectively descend from a single military koine that sprang up during the Islamic conquests; this view has been challenged in recent times. Ahmad al-Jallad proposes that there were at least two considerably distinct types of Arabic on the eve of the conquests: Northern and Central (Al-Jallad 2009). The modern dialects emerged from a new contact situation produced following the conquests. Instead of the emergence of a single or multiple koines, the dialects contain several sedimentary layers of borrowed and areal features, which they absorbed at different points in their linguistic histories. According to Veersteegh and Bickerton, colloquial Arabic dialects arose from pidginized Arabic formed from contact between Arabs and conquered peoples. Pidginization and subsequent creolization among Arabs and arabized peoples could explain relative morphological and phonological simplicity of vernacular Arabic compared to Classical and MSA.In around the 11th and 12th centuries in al-Andalus, the zajal and muwashah poetry forms developed in the dialectical Arabic of Cordoba and the Maghreb. In the wake of the industrial revolution and European hegemony and colonialism, pioneering Arabic presses, such as the Amiri Press established by Muhammad Ali (1819), dramatically changed the diffusion and consumption of Arabic literature and publications. The Nahda cultural renaissance saw the creation of a number of Arabic academies modeled after the Académie française, starting with the Arab Academy of Damascus (1918), which aimed to develop the Arabic lexicon to suit these transformations. This gave rise to what Western scholars call Modern Standard Arabic. Arabic usually refers to Standard Arabic, which Western linguists divide into Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic. It could also refer to any of a variety of regional vernacular Arabic dialects, which are not necessarily mutually intelligible. Classical Arabic is the language found in the Quran, used from the period of Pre-Islamic Arabia to that of the Abbasid Caliphate. Classical Arabic is prescriptive, according to the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by classical grammarians (such as Sibawayh) and the vocabulary defined in classical dictionaries (such as the Lisān al-ʻArab). Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the industrial and post-industrial era, especially in modern times. Due to its grounding in Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic is removed over a millennium from everyday speech, which is construed as a multitude of dialects of this language. These dialects and Modern Standard Arabic are described by some scholars as not mutually comprehensible. The former are usually acquired in families, while the latter is taught in formal education settings. However, there have been studies reporting some degree of comprehension of stories told in the standard variety among preschool-aged children. The relation between Modern Standard Arabic and these dialects is sometimes compared to that of Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin vernaculars (which became Romance languages) in medieval and early modern Europe. This view though does not take into account the widespread use of Modern Standard Arabic as a medium of audiovisual communication in today's mass media—a function Latin has never performed. MSA is the variety used in most current, printed Arabic publications, spoken by some of the Arabic media across North Africa and the Middle East, and understood by most educated Arabic speakers. "Literary Arabic" and "Standard Arabic" (فُصْحَى‎ fuṣḥá) are less strictly defined terms that may refer to Modern Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic. Some of the differences between Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) are as follows: Certain grammatical constructions of CA that have no counterpart in any modern vernacular dialect (e.g., the energetic mood) are almost never used in Modern Standard Arabic. Case distinctions are very rare in Arabic vernaculars. As a result, MSA is generally composed without case distinctions in mind, and the proper cases are added after the fact, when necessary. Because most case endings are noted using final short vowels, which are normally left unwritten in the Arabic script, it is unnecessary to determine the proper case of most words. The practical result of this is that MSA, like English and Standard Chinese, is written in a strongly determined word order and alternative orders that were used in CA for emphasis are rare. In addition, because of the lack of case marking in the spoken varieties, most speakers cannot consistently use the correct endings in extemporaneous speech. As a result, spoken MSA tends to drop or regularize the endings except when reading from a prepared text. The numeral system in CA is complex and heavily tied in with the case system. This system is never used in MSA, even in the most formal of circumstances; instead, a significantly simplified system is used, approximating the system of the conservative spoken varieties.MSA uses much Classical vocabulary (e.g., dhahaba 'to go') that is not present in the spoken varieties, but deletes Classical words that sound obsolete in MSA. In addition, MSA has borrowed or coined many terms for concepts that did not exist in Quranic times, and MSA continues to evolve. Some words have been borrowed from other languages—notice that transliteration mainly indicates spelling and not real pronunciation (e.g., فِلْم‎ film 'film' or ديمقراطية‎ dīmuqrāṭiyyah 'democracy'). However, the current preference is to avoid direct borrowings, preferring to either use loan translations (e.g., فرع‎ farʻ 'branch', also used for the branch of a company or organization; جناح‎ janāḥ 'wing', is also used for the wing of an airplane, building, air force, etc.), or to coin new words using forms within existing roots (استماتة‎ istimātah 'apoptosis', using the root موت‎ m/w/t 'death' put into the Xth form, or جامعة‎ jāmiʻah 'university', based on جمع‎ jamaʻa 'to gather, unite'; جمهورية‎ jumhūriyyah 'republic', based on جمهور‎ jumhūr 'multitude'). An earlier tendency was to redefine an older word although this has fallen into disuse (e.g., هاتف‎ hātif 'telephone' < 'invisible caller (in Sufism)'; جريدة‎ jarīdah 'newspaper' < 'palm-leaf stalk'). Colloquial or dialectal Arabic refers to the many national or regional varieties which constitute the everyday spoken language and evolved from Classical Arabic. Colloquial Arabic has many regional variants; geographically distant varieties usually differ enough to be mutually unintelligible, and some linguists consider them distinct languages. The varieties are typically unwritten. They are often used in informal spoken media, such as soap operas and talk shows, as well as occasionally in certain forms of written media such as poetry and printed advertising. The only variety of modern Arabic to have acquired official language status is Maltese, which is spoken in (predominantly Catholic) Malta and written with the Latin script. It is descended from Classical Arabic through Siculo-Arabic, but is not mutually intelligible with any other variety of Arabic. Most linguists list it as a separate language rather than as a dialect of Arabic. Even during Muhammad's lifetime, there were dialects of spoken Arabic. Muhammad spoke in the dialect of Mecca, in the western Arabian peninsula, and it was in this dialect that the Quran was written down. However, the dialects of the eastern Arabian peninsula were considered the most prestigious at the time, so the language of the Quran was ultimately converted to follow the eastern phonology. It is this phonology that underlies the modern pronunciation of Classical Arabic. The phonological differences between these two dialects account for some of the complexities of Arabic writing, most notably the writing of the glottal stop or hamzah (which was preserved in the eastern dialects but lost in western speech) and the use of alif maqṣūrah (representing a sound preserved in the western dialects but merged with ā in eastern speech). The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia, which is the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. Tawleed is the process of giving a new shade of meaning to an old classical word. For example, al-hatif lexicographically, means the one whose sound is heard but whose person remains unseen. Now the term al-hatif is used for a telephone. Therefore, the process of tawleed can express the needs of modern civilization in a manner that would appear to be originally Arabic. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their school-taught Standard Arabic as well as their native, mutually unintelligible "dialects"; these dialects linguistically constitute separate languages which may have dialects of their own. When educated Arabs of different dialects engage in conversation (for example, a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), many speakers code-switch back and forth between the dialectal and standard varieties of the language, sometimes even within the same sentence. Arabic speakers often improve their familiarity with other dialects via music or film. The issue of whether Arabic is one language or many languages is politically charged, in the same way it is for the varieties of Chinese, Hindi and Urdu, Serbian and Croatian, Scots and English, etc. In contrast to speakers of Hindi and Urdu who claim they cannot understand each other even when they can, speakers of the varieties of Arabic will claim they can all understand each other even when they cannot. The issue of diglossia between spoken and written language is a significant complicating factor: A single written form, significantly different from any of the spoken varieties learned natively, unites a number of sometimes divergent spoken forms. For political reasons, Arabs mostly assert that they all speak a single language, despite significant issues of mutual incomprehensibility among differing spoken versions.From a linguistic standpoint, it is often said that the various spoken varieties of Arabic differ among each other collectively about as much as the Romance languages. This is an apt comparison in a number of ways. The period of divergence from a single spoken form is similar—perhaps 1500 years for Arabic, 2000 years for the Romance languages. Also, while it is comprehensible to people from the Maghreb, a linguistically innovative variety such as Moroccan Arabic is essentially incomprehensible to Arabs from the Mashriq, much as French is incomprehensible to Spanish or Italian speakers but relatively easily learned by them. This suggests that the spoken varieties may linguistically be considered separate languages. The influence of Arabic has been most important in Islamic countries, because it is the language of the Islamic sacred book, the Quran. Arabic is also an important source of vocabulary for languages such as Amharic, Azerbaijani, Baluchi, Bengali, Berber, Bosnian, Chaldean, Chechen, Chittagonian, Croatian, Dagestani, English, German, Gujarati, Hausa, Hindi, Kazakh, Kurdish, Kutchi, Kyrgyz, Malay (Malaysian and Indonesian), Pashto, Persian, Punjabi, Rohingya, Romance languages (French, Catalan, Italian, Portuguese, Sicilian, Spanish, etc.) Saraiki, Sindhi, Somali, Sylheti, Swahili, Tagalog, Tigrinya, Turkish, Turkmen, Urdu, Uyghur, Uzbek, Visayan and Wolof, as well as other languages in countries where these languages are spoken.The Education Minister of France has recently been emphasizing the learning and usage of Arabic in their schools.In addition, English has many Arabic loanwords, some directly, but most via other Mediterranean languages. Examples of such words include admiral, adobe, alchemy, alcohol, algebra, algorithm, alkaline, almanac, amber, arsenal, assassin, candy, carat, cipher, coffee, cotton, ghoul, hazard, jar, kismet, lemon, loofah, magazine, mattress, sherbet, sofa, sumac, tariff, and zenith. Other languages such as Maltese and Kinubi derive ultimately from Arabic, rather than merely borrowing vocabulary or grammatical rules. Terms borrowed range from religious terminology (like Berber taẓallit, "prayer", from salat (صلاة‎ ṣalāh)), academic terms (like Uyghur mentiq, "logic"), and economic items (like English coffee) to placeholders (like Spanish fulano, "so-and-so"), everyday terms (like Hindustani lekin, "but", or Spanish taza and French tasse, meaning "cup"), and expressions (like Catalan a betzef, "galore, in quantity"). Most Berber varieties (such as Kabyle), along with Swahili, borrow some numbers from Arabic. Most Islamic religious terms are direct borrowings from Arabic, such as صلاة‎ (salat), "prayer", and إمام‎ (imam), "prayer leader." In languages not directly in contact with the Arab world, Arabic loanwords are often transferred indirectly via other languages rather than being transferred directly from Arabic. For example, most Arabic loanwords in Hindustani and Turkish entered though Persian is an Indo-Iranian language. Older Arabic loanwords in Hausa were borrowed from Kanuri. Arabic words also made their way into several West African languages as Islam spread across the Sahara. Variants of Arabic words such as كتاب‎ kitāb ("book") have spread to the languages of African groups who had no direct contact with Arab traders.Since throughout the Islamic world, Arabic occupied a position similar to that of Latin in Europe, many of the Arabic concepts in the fields of science, philosophy, commerce, etc. were coined from Arabic roots by non-native Arabic speakers, notably by Aramaic and Persian translators, and then found their way into other languages. This process of using Arabic roots, especially in Kurdish and Persian, to translate foreign concepts continued through to the 18th and 19th centuries, when swaths of Arab-inhabited lands were under Ottoman rule. The most important sources of borrowings into (pre-Islamic) Arabic are from the related (Semitic) languages Aramaic, which used to be the principal, international language of communication throughout the ancient Near and Middle East, and Ethiopic. In addition, many cultural, religious and political terms have entered Arabic from Iranian languages, notably Middle Persian, Parthian, and (Classical) Persian, and Hellenistic Greek (kīmiyāʼ has as origin the Greek khymia, meaning in that language the melting of metals; see Roger Dachez, Histoire de la Médecine de l'Antiquité au XXe siècle, Tallandier, 2008, p. 251), alembic (distiller) from ambix (cup), almanac (climate) from almenichiakon (calendar). (For the origin of the last three borrowed words, see Alfred-Louis de Prémare, Foundations of Islam, Seuil, L'Univers Historique, 2002.) Some Arabic borrowings from Semitic or Persian languages are, as presented in De Prémare's above-cited book: madīnah/medina (مدينة, city or city square), a word of Aramaic origin (in which it means "a state") jazīrah (جزيرة), as in the well-known form الجزيرة "Al-Jazeera," means "island" and has its origin in the Syriac ܓܙܝܪܗ gazīra. lāzaward (لازورد) is taken from Persian لاژورد lājvard, the name of a blue stone, lapis lazuli. This word was borrowed in several European languages to mean (light) blue – azure in English, azur in French and azul in Portuguese and Spanish.A comprehensive overview of the influence of other languages on Arabic is found in Lucas & Manfredi (2020). There have been many instances of national movements to convert Arabic script into Latin script or to Romanize the language. Currently, the only language derived from Classical Arabic to use Latin script is Maltese. The Beirut newspaper La Syrie pushed for the change from Arabic script to Latin letters in 1922. The major head of this movement was Louis Massignon, a French Orientalist, who brought his concern before the Arabic Language Academy in Damascus in 1928. Massignon's attempt at Romanization failed as the Academy and population viewed the proposal as an attempt from the Western world to take over their country. Sa'id Afghani, a member of the Academy, mentioned that the movement to Romanize the script was a Zionist plan to dominate Lebanon. After the period of colonialism in Egypt, Egyptians were looking for a way to reclaim and re-emphasize Egyptian culture. As a result, some Egyptians pushed for an Egyptianization of the Arabic language in which the formal Arabic and the colloquial Arabic would be combined into one language and the Latin alphabet would be used. There was also the idea of finding a way to use Hieroglyphics instead of the Latin alphabet, but this was seen as too complicated to use. A scholar, Salama Musa agreed with the idea of applying a Latin alphabet to Arabic, as he believed that would allow Egypt to have a closer relationship with the West. He also believed that Latin script was key to the success of Egypt as it would allow for more advances in science and technology. This change in alphabet, he believed, would solve the problems inherent with Arabic, such as a lack of written vowels and difficulties writing foreign words that made it difficult for non-native speakers to learn. Ahmad Lutfi As Sayid and Muhammad Azmi, two Egyptian intellectuals, agreed with Musa and supported the push for Romanization. The idea that Romanization was necessary for modernization and growth in Egypt continued with Abd Al-Aziz Fahmi in 1944. He was the chairman for the Writing and Grammar Committee for the Arabic Language Academy of Cairo. However, this effort failed as the Egyptian people felt a strong cultural tie to the Arabic alphabet. In particular, the older Egyptian generations believed that the Arabic alphabet had strong connections to Arab values and history, due to the long history of the Arabic alphabet (Shrivtiel, 189) in Muslim societies. The Quran introduced a new way of writing to the world. People began studying and applying the unique styles they learned from the Quran to not only their own writing, but also their culture. Writers studied the unique structure and format of the Quran in order to identify and apply the figurative devices and their impact on the reader. The Quran inspired musicality in poetry through the internal rhythm of the verses. The arrangement of words, how certain sounds create harmony, and the agreement of rhymes create the sense of rhythm within each verse. At times, the chapters of the Quran only have the rhythm in common.The repetition in the Quran introduced the true power and impact repetition can have in poetry. The repetition of certain words and phrases made them appear more firm and explicit in the Quran. The Quran uses constant metaphors of blindness and deafness to imply unbelief. Metaphors were not a new concept to poetry, however the strength of extended metaphors was. The explicit imagery in the Quran inspired many poets to include and focus on the feature in their own work. The poet ibn al-Mu'tazz wrote a book regarding the figures of speech inspired by his study of the Quran. Poets such as badr Shakir al sayyab expresses his political opinion in his work through imagery inspired by the forms of more harsher imagery used in the Quran. The Quran uses figurative devices in order to express the meaning in the most beautiful form possible. The study of the pauses in the Quran as well as other rhetoric allow it to be approached in a multiple ways. Although the Quran is known for its fluency and harmony, the structure can be best described as not always being inherently chronological, but can also flow thematically instead (the chapters in the Quran have segments that flow in chronological order, however segments can transition into other segments not related in chronology, but could be related in topic). The suras, also known as chapters of the Quran, are not placed in chronological order. The only constant in their structure is that the longest are placed first and shorter ones follow. The topics discussed in the chapters can also have no direct relation to each other (as seen in many suras) and can share in their sense of rhyme. The Quran introduces to poetry the idea of abandoning order and scattering narratives throughout the text. Harmony is also present in the sound of the Quran. The elongations and accents present in the Quran create a harmonious flow within the writing. Unique sound of the Quran recited, due to the accents, create a deeper level of understanding through a deeper emotional connection.The Quran is written in a language that is simple and understandable by people. The simplicity of the writing inspired later poets to write in a more clear and clear-cut style. The words of the Quran, although unchanged, are to this day understandable and frequently used in both formal and informal Arabic. The simplicity of the language makes memorizing and reciting the Quran a slightly easier task. The writer al-Khattabi explains how culture is a required element to create a sense of art in work as well as understand it. He believes that the fluency and harmony which the Quran possess are not the only elements that make it beautiful and create a bond between the reader and the text. While a lot of poetry was deemed comparable to the Quran in that it is equal to or better than the composition of the Quran, a debate rose that such statements are not possible because humans are incapable of composing work comparable to the Quran. Because the structure of the Quran made it difficult for a clear timeline to be seen, Hadith were the main source of chronological order. The Hadith were passed down from generation to generation and this tradition became a large resource for understanding the context. Poetry after the Quran began possessing this element of tradition by including ambiguity and background information to be required to understand the meaning.After the Quran came down to the people, the tradition of memorizing the verses became present. It is believed that the greater the amount of the Quran memorized, the greater the faith. As technology improved over time, hearing recitations of the Quran became more available as well as more tools to help memorize the verses. The tradition of Love Poetry served as a symbolic representation of a Muslim's desire for a closer contact with their Lord. While the influence of the Quran on Arabic poetry is explained and defended by numerous writers, some writers such as Al-Baqillani believe that poetry and the Quran are in no conceivable way related due to the uniqueness of the Quran. Poetry's imperfections prove his points that they cannot be compared with the fluency the Quran holds. Classical Arabic is the language of poetry and literature (including news); it is also mainly the language of the Quran. Classical Arabic is closely associated with the religion of Islam because the Quran was written in it. Most of the world's Muslims do not speak Classical Arabic as their native language, but many can read the Quranic script and recite the Quran. Among non-Arab Muslims, translations of the Quran are most often accompanied by the original text. At present, Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is also used in modernized versions of literary forms of the Quran. Some Muslims present a monogenesis of languages and claim that the Arabic language was the language revealed by God for the benefit of mankind and the original language as a prototype system of symbolic communication, based upon its system of triconsonantal roots, spoken by man from which all other languages were derived, having first been corrupted. Judaism has a similar account with the Tower of Babel. Colloquial Arabic is a collective term for the spoken dialects of Arabic used throughout the Arab world, which differ radically from the literary language. The main dialectal division is between the varieties within and outside of the Arabian peninsula, followed by that between sedentary varieties and the much more conservative Bedouin varieties. All the varieties outside of the Arabian peninsula (which include the large majority of speakers) have many features in common with each other that are not found in Classical Arabic. This has led researchers to postulate the existence of a prestige koine dialect in the one or two centuries immediately following the Arab conquest, whose features eventually spread to all newly conquered areas. (These features are present to varying degree

How do you say merry Christmas in Gujarati?

It depends on which of India's 455 languages you want to say it in. Here is a list of languages for India: 1. Aariya 2. Adi 3. Adi, Galo 4. Agariya 5. Ahirani 6. Ahom 7. Aimol 8. Aiton 9. Aka-Bea 10. Aka-Bo 11. Aka-Cari 12. Aka-Jeru 13. Aka-Kede 14. Aka-Kol 15. Aka-Kora 16. Akar-Bale 17. Allar 18. Amri Karbi 19. Anal 20. Andaman Creole Hindi 21. Andh 22. Angika 23. Apatani 24. A-Pucikwar 25. Aranadan 26. Assamese 27. Asuri 28. A'tong 29. Awadhi 30. Badaga 31. Bagheli 32. Bagri 33. Balochi, Eastern 34. Balti 35. Bareli, Palya 36. Bareli, Pauri 37. Bareli, Rathwi 38. Bateri 39. Bauria 40. Bazigar 41. Bellari 42. Bengali 43. Bhadrawahi 44. Bhalay 45. Bharia 46. Bhatola 47. Bhatri 48. Bhattiyali 49. Bhilali 50. Bhili 51. Bhojpuri 52. Bhunjia 53. Biete 54. Bijori 55. Bilaspuri 56. Birhor 57. Bishnupriya 58. Bodo 59. Bodo Parja 60. Bondo 61. Braj Bhasha 62. Brokskat 63. Bugun 64. Buksa 65. Bundeli 66. Byangsi 67. Chakma 68. Chamari 69. Chambeali 70. Changthang 71. Chaudangsi 72. Chaura 73. Chenchu 74. Chetti, Wayanad 75. Chhattisgarhi 76. Chin, Bawm 77. Chin, Falam 78. Chin, Haka 79. Chin, Khumi 80. Chin, Mara 81. Chin, Matu 82. Chin, Paite 83. Chin, Tedim 84. Chin, Thado 85. Chinali 86. Chiru 87. Chodri 88. Chug 89. Churahi 90. Darlong 91. Darmiya 92. Deccan 93. Degaru 94. Deori 95. Desiya 96. Dhanki 97. Dhanwar 98. Dhatki 99. Dhimal 100. Dhodia 101. Dhundari 102. Digaro-Mishmi 103. Dimasa 104. Dogri 105. Dogri 106. Domari 107. Dubli 108. Dungra Bhil 109. Duruwa 110. Dzongkha 111. English 112. Eravallan 113. Gadaba, Bodo 114. Gadaba, Mudhili 115. Gadaba, Pottangi Ollar 116. Gaddi 117. Gahri 118. Gamit 119. Gangte 120. Garasia, Adiwasi 121. Garasia, Rajput 122. Garhwali 123. Garo 124. Gata' 125. Godwari 126. Gondi 127. Gondi, Northern 128. Gondi, Southern 129. Gowlan 130. Gowli 131. Groma 132. Gujarati 133. Gujari 134. Gurung, Western 135. Hadothi 136. Hajong 137. Halbi 138. Haryanvi 139. Hindi 140. Hinduri 141. Hmar 142. Ho 143. Holiya 144. Hrangkhol 145. Hruso 146. Idu-Mishmi 147. Indian Sign Language 148. Indo-Portuguese 149. Irula 150. Jad 151. Jangshung 152. Jarawa 153. Jaunsari 154. Juang 155. Juray 156. Kachari 157. Kachchi 158. Kadar 159. Kaikadi 160. Kalanadi 161. Kamar 162. Kamta 163. Kanashi 164. Kanauji 165. Kangri 166. Kanikkaran 167. Kanjari 168. Kannada 169. Karbi 170. Kashmiri 171. Katkari 172. Khaling 173. Khamba 174. Khamti 175. Khamyang 176. Khandesi 177. Kharia 178. Kharia Thar 179. Khasi 180. Khirwar 181. Khowar 182. Kinnauri 183. Kinnauri, Bhoti 184. Kinnauri, Chitkuli 185. Kinnauri, Harijan 186. Koch 187. Koda 188. Kodaku 189. Kodava 190. Koireng 191. Kok Borok 192. Kolami, Northwestern 193. Kolami, Southeastern 194. Koli, Kachi 195. Koli, Wadiyara 196. Kom 197. Konda-Dora 198. Konkani 199. Konkani 200. Konkani, Goan 201. Koraga, Korra 202. Koraga, Mudu 203. Korku 204. Korlai Creole Portuguese 205. Korwa 206. Kota 207. Koya 208. Kudiya 209. Kudmali 210. Kui 211. Kukna 212. Kulung 213. Kumaoni 214. Kumarbhag Paharia 215. Kumbaran 216. Kunduvadi 217. Kupia 218. Kurichiya 219. Kurmukar 220. Kurumba, Alu 221. Kurumba, Attapady 222. Kurumba, Betta 223. Kurumba, Jennu 224. Kurumba, Kannada 225. Kurumba, Mullu 226. Kurux 227. Kuvi 228. Ladakhi 229. Lambadi 230. Lamkang 231. Lepcha 232. Lhomi 233. Limbu 234. Lish 235. Lisu 236. Lodhi 237. Lohar, Gade 238. Lohar, Lahul 239. Lyngngam 240. Magahi 241. Magar, Eastern 242. Mahali 243. Maithili 244. Majhi 245. Majhwar 246. Mal Paharia 247. Mala Malasar 248. Malankuravan 249. Malapandaram 250. Malaryan 251. Malasar 252. Malavedan 253. Malayalam 254. Maldivian 255. Malvi 256. Manda 257. Mandeali 258. Manna-Dora 259. Mannan 260. Marathi 261. Maria 262. Maria, Dandami 263. Marma 264. Marwari 265. Marwari 266. Mawchi 267. Meitei 268. Merwari 269. Mewari 270. Mewati 271. Miji 272. Miju-Mishmi 273. Mina 274. Mirgan 275. Miri 276. Mizo 277. Monpa, Kalaktang 278. Monpa, Tawang 279. Mru 280. Muduga 281. Mugom 282. Mukha-Dora 283. Munda 284. Mundari 285. Muria, Eastern 286. Muria, Far Western 287. Muria, Western 288. Muthuvan 289. Na 290. Naga Pidgin 291. Naga, Angami 292. Naga, Ao 293. Naga, Chang 294. Naga, Chokri 295. Naga, Chothe 296. Naga, Inpui 297. Naga, Kharam 298. Naga, Khezha 299. Naga, Khiamniungan 300. Naga, Khoibu 301. Naga, Konyak 302. Naga, Liangmai 303. Naga, Lotha 304. Naga, Makuri 305. Naga, Mao 306. Naga, Maram 307. Naga, Maring 308. Naga, Monsang 309. Naga, Moyon 310. Naga, Mzieme 311. Naga, Nocte 312. Naga, Northern Rengma 313. Naga, Phom 314. Naga, Pochuri 315. Naga, Poumei 316. Naga, Puimei 317. Naga, Purum 318. Naga, Rongmei 319. Naga, Sangtam 320. Naga, Southern Rengma 321. Naga, Sumi 322. Naga, Tangkhul 323. Naga, Tarao 324. Naga, Tase 325. Naga, Thangal 326. Naga, Tutsa 327. Naga, Wancho 328. Naga, Yimchungru 329. Naga, Zeme 330. Nagarchal 331. Nahali 332. Nahari 333. Nefamese 334. Nepali 335. Newar 336. Nicobarese, Car 337. Nicobarese, Central 338. Nicobarese, Southern 339. Nihali 340. Nimadi 341. Nisi 342. Noiri 343. Oko-Juwoi 344. Öñge 345. Oriya 346. Oriya, Adivasi 347. Pahari, Kullu 348. Pahari, Mahasu 349. Pali 350. Paliyan 351. Panchpargania 352. Pangwali 353. Paniya 354. Panjabi, Eastern 355. Panjabi, Mirpur 356. Panjabi, Western 357. Pankhu 358. Pao 359. Pardhan 360. Pardhi 361. Parenga 362. Parsi 363. Pathiya 364. Pattani 365. Pengo 366. Phake 367. Phudagi 368. Pnar 369. Powari 370. Purik 371. Rabha 372. Rajasthani 373. Ralte 374. Rangkas 375. Ranglong 376. Rathawi 377. Ravula 378. Rawang 379. Rawat 380. Reli 381. Riang 382. Rongpo 383. Ruga 384. Sadri 385. Sakachep 386. Samvedi 387. Sansi 388. Sanskrit 389. Santali 390. Sartang 391. Saurashtra 392. Sauria Paharia 393. Savara 394. Sentinel 395. Seraiki 396. Shekhawati 397. Shendu 398. Sherdukpen 399. Sherpa 400. Shina 401. Sholaga 402. Shom Peng 403. Shumcho 404. Sikkimese 405. Simte 406. Sindhi 407. Singpho 408. Sirmauri 409. Sora 410. Spiti Bhoti 411. Stod Bhoti 412. Sulung 413. Sunam 414. Surjapuri 415. Sylheti 416. Tamang, Eastern 417. Tamil 418. Telugu 419. Teressa 420. Thachanadan 421. Thangmi 422. Tharu, Chitwania 423. Tharu, Dangaura 424. Tharu, Kathoriya 425. Tharu, Kochila 426. Tharu, Rana 427. Thulung 428. Tibetan 429. Tinani 430. Tiwa 431. Toda 432. Toto 433. Tshangla 434. Tukpa 435. Tulu 436. Turi 437. Turung 438. Ullatan 439. Urali 440. Urdu 441. Vaagri Booli 442. Vaiphei 443. Varhadi-Nagpuri 444. Varli 445. Vasavi 446. Vishavan 447. Waddar 448. Wagdi 449. War-Jaintia 450. Yakha 451. Yerukula 452. Zakhring 453. Zangskari 454. Zou 455. Zyphe

What languages are spoken in the subcontinent?

There are more than 500 languages spoken on the Indian Subcontinent. Here is a partial list: 1. Aariya 2. Adi 3. Adi, Galo 4. Agariya 5. Ahirani 6. Ahom 7. Aimol 8. Aiton 9. Aka-Bea 10. Aka-Bo 11. Aka-Cari 12. Aka-Jeru 13. Aka-Kede 14. Aka-Kol 15. Aka-Kora 16. Akar-Bale 17. Allar 18. Amri Karbi 19. Anal 20. Andaman Creole Hindi 21. Andh 22. Angika 23. Apatani 24. A-Pucikwar 25. Aranadan 26. Assamese 27. Asuri 28. A'tong 29. Awadhi 30. Badaga 31. Bagheli 32. Bagri 33. Balochi, Eastern 34. Balti 35. Bareli, Palya 36. Bareli, Pauri 37. Bareli, Rathwi 38. Bateri 39. Bauria 40. Bazigar 41. Bellari 42. Bengali 43. Bhadrawahi 44. Bhalay 45. Bharia 46. Bhatola 47. Bhatri 48. Bhattiyali 49. Bhilali 50. Bhili 51. Bhojpuri 52. Bhunjia 53. Biete 54. Bijori 55. Bilaspuri 56. Birhor 57. Bishnupriya 58. Bodo 59. Bodo Parja 60. Bondo 61. Braj Bhasha 62. Brokskat 63. Bugun 64. Buksa 65. Bundeli 66. Byangsi 67. Chakma 68. Chamari 69. Chambeali 70. Changthang 71. Chaudangsi 72. Chaura 73. Chenchu 74. Chetti, Wayanad 75. Chhattisgarhi 76. Chin, Bawm 77. Chin, Falam 78. Chin, Haka 79. Chin, Khumi 80. Chin, Mara 81. Chin, Matu 82. Chin, Paite 83. Chin, Tedim 84. Chin, Thado 85. Chinali 86. Chiru 87. Chodri 88. Chug 89. Churahi 90. Darlong 91. Darmiya 92. Deccan 93. Degaru 94. Deori 95. Desiya 96. Dhanki 97. Dhanwar 98. Dhatki 99. Dhimal 100. Dhodia 101. Dhundari 102. Digaro-Mishmi 103. Dimasa 104. Dogri 105. Dogri 106. Domari 107. Dubli 108. Dungra Bhil 109. Duruwa 110. Dzongkha 111. English 112. Eravallan 113. French 114. Gadaba, Bodo 115. Gadaba, Mudhili 116. Gadaba, Pottangi Ollar 117. Gaddi 118. Gahri 119. Gamit 120. Gangte 121. Garasia, Adiwasi 122. Garasia, Rajput 123. Garhwali 124. Garo 125. Gata' 126. Godwari 127. Gondi 128. Gondi, Northern 129. Gondi, Southern 130. Gowlan 131. Gowli 132. Groma 133. Gujarati 134. Gujari 135. Gurung, Western 136. Hadothi 137. Hajong 138. Halbi 139. Haryanvi 140. Hindi 141. Hinduri 142. Hmar 143. Ho 144. Holiya 145. Hrangkhol 146. Hruso 147. Idu-Mishmi 148. Indian Sign Language 149. Indo-Portuguese 150. Irula 151. Jad 152. Jangshung 153. Jarawa 154. Jaunsari 155. Juang 156. Juray 157. Kachari 158. Kachchi 159. Kadar 160. Kaikadi 161. Kalanadi 162. Kamar 163. Kamta 164. Kanashi 165. Kanauji 166. Kangri 167. Kanikkaran 168. Kanjari 169. Kannada 170. Karbi 171. Kashmiri 172. Katkari 173. Khaling 174. Khamba 175. Khamti 176. Khamyang 177. Khandesi 178. Kharia 179. Kharia Thar 180. Khasi 181. Khirwar 182. Khowar 183. Kinnauri 184. Kinnauri, Bhoti 185. Kinnauri, Chitkuli 186. Kinnauri, Harijan 187. Koch 188. Koda 189. Kodaku 190. Kodava 191. Koireng 192. Kok Borok 193. Kolami, Northwestern 194. Kolami, Southeastern 195. Koli, Kachi 196. Koli, Wadiyara 197. Kom 198. Konda-Dora 199. Konkani 200. Konkani 201. Konkani, Goan 202. Koraga, Korra 203. Koraga, Mudu 204. Korku 205. Korlai Creole Portuguese 206. Korwa 207. Kota 208. Koya 209. Kudiya 210. Kudmali 211. Kui 212. Kukna 213. Kulung 214. Kumaoni 215. Kumarbhag Paharia 216. Kumbaran 217. Kunduvadi 218. Kupia 219. Kurichiya 220. Kurmukar 221. Kurumba, Alu 222. Kurumba, Attapady 223. Kurumba, Betta 224. Kurumba, Jennu 225. Kurumba, Kannada 226. Kurumba, Mullu 227. Kurux 228. Kuvi 229. Ladakhi 230. Lambadi 231. Lamkang 232. Lepcha 233. Lhomi 234. Limbu 235. Lish 236. Lisu 237. Lodhi 238. Lohar, Gade 239. Lohar, Lahul 240. Lyngngam 241. Magahi 242. Magar, Eastern 243. Mahali 244. Maithili 245. Majhi 246. Majhwar 247. Mal Paharia 248. Mala Malasar 249. Malankuravan 250. Malapandaram 251. Malaryan 252. Malasar 253. Malavedan 254. Malayalam 255. Maldivian 256. Malvi 257. Manda 258. Mandeali 259. Manna-Dora 260. Mannan 261. Marathi 262. Maria 263. Maria, Dandami 264. Marma 265. Marwari 266. Marwari 267. Mawchi 268. Meitei 269. Merwari 270. Mewari 271. Mewati 272. Miji 273. Miju-Mishmi 274. Mina 275. Mirgan 276. Miri 277. Mizo 278. Monpa, Kalaktang 279. Monpa, Tawang 280. Mru 281. Muduga 282. Mugom 283. Mukha-Dora 284. Munda 285. Mundari 286. Muria, Eastern 287. Muria, Far Western 288. Muria, Western 289. Muthuvan 290. Na 291. Naga Pidgin 292. Naga, Angami 293. Naga, Ao 294. Naga, Chang 295. Naga, Chokri 296. Naga, Chothe 297. Naga, Inpui 298. Naga, Kharam 299. Naga, Khezha 300. Naga, Khiamniungan 301. Naga, Khoibu 302. Naga, Konyak 303. Naga, Liangmai 304. Naga, Lotha 305. Naga, Makuri 306. Naga, Mao 307. Naga, Maram 308. Naga, Maring 309. Naga, Monsang 310. Naga, Moyon 311. Naga, Mzieme 312. Naga, Nocte 313. Naga, Northern Rengma 314. Naga, Phom 315. Naga, Pochuri 316. Naga, Poumei 317. Naga, Puimei 318. Naga, Purum 319. Naga, Rongmei 320. Naga, Sangtam 321. Naga, Southern Rengma 322. Naga, Sumi 323. Naga, Tangkhul 324. Naga, Tarao 325. Naga, Tase 326. Naga, Thangal 327. Naga, Tutsa 328. Naga, Wancho 329. Naga, Yimchungru 330. Naga, Zeme 331. Nagarchal 332. Nahali 333. Nahari 334. Nefamese 335. Nepali 336. Newar 337. Nicobarese, Car 338. Nicobarese, Central 339. Nicobarese, Southern 340. Nihali 341. Nimadi 342. Nisi 343. Noiri 344. Oko-Juwoi 345. Ã–Ã±ge 346. Oriya 347. Oriya, Adivasi 348. Pahari, Kullu 349. Pahari, Mahasu 350. Pali 351. Paliyan 352. Panchpargania 353. Pangwali 354. Paniya 355. Panjabi, Eastern 356. Panjabi, Mirpur 357. Panjabi, Western 358. Pankhu 359. Pao 360. Pardhan 361. Pardhi 362. Parenga 363. Parsi 364. Pathiya 365. Pattani 366. Pengo 367. Phake 368. Phudagi 369. Pnar 370. Portuguese 371. Powari 372. Purik 373. Rabha 374. Rajasthani 375. Ralte 376. Rangkas 377. Ranglong 378. Rathawi 379. Ravula 380. Rawang 381. Rawat 382. Reli 383. Riang 384. Rongpo 385. Ruga 386. Sadri 387. Sakachep 388. Samvedi 389. Sansi 390. Sanskrit 391. Santali 392. Sartang 393. Saurashtra 394. Sauria Paharia 395. Savara 396. Sentinel 397. Seraiki 398. Shekhawati 399. Shendu 400. Sherdukpen 401. Sherpa 402. Shina 403. Sholaga 404. Shom Peng 405. Shumcho 406. Sikkimese 407. Simte 408. Sindhi 409. Singpho 410. Sirmauri 411. Sora 412. Spiti Bhoti 413. Stod Bhoti 414. Sulung 415. Sunam 416. Surjapuri 417. Sylheti 418. Tamang, Eastern 419. Tamil 420. Telugu 421. Teressa 422. Thachanadan 423. Thangmi 424. Tharu, Chitwania 425. Tharu, Dangaura 426. Tharu, Kathoriya 427. Tharu, Kochila 428. Tharu, Rana 429. Thulung 430. Tibetan 431. Tinani 432. Tiwa 433. Toda 434. Toto 435. Tshangla 436. Tukpa 437. Tulu 438. Turi 439. Turung 440. Ullatan 441. Urali 442. Urdu 443. Vaagri Booli 444. Vaiphei 445. Varhadi-Nagpuri 446. Varli 447. Vasavi 448. Vishavan 449. Waddar 450. Wagdi 451. War-Jaintia 452. Yakha 453. Yerukula 454. Zakhring 455. Zangskari 456. Zou 457. Zyphe

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