Differences between linear programming and branched programming?

Answer 1

Programmed learning

Programmed learning has been announced as a revolution in educational techniques.

Programmed learning has a long past but only a short history.

Historical background:

1. Contribution of Socrates: Socrates was one of the earliest programmers who

developed a program in Geometry. This was recorded by Plato.

2. Contribution of S.L. Pressey: In Ohio University S.L.Pressey (1926-27) was first to

devise a machine which could teach as well as test.

3. B.F. Skinner's contribution: Programmed learning got historical momentum only

after the publication of Skinner's paper "The Silence of Learning and the Art of

Teaching" in 1954.

4. Contribution of co-workers of Skinner: The associates and co-workers of Prof.

Skinner gave a movement for programmed instruction by publishing a number of

papers on its various aspects based mainly on laboratory experimental observations.

Concept of Programmed Learning

Programmed learning represents a highly individualized and systematic instructional strategy

for class-room instructions as well as self-learning. It is now considered as one of the most

important innovations in the field of education.

Susan Markle's view: "Programmed leaning is a method of designing a reproducible

sequence of instructional events to produce a measurable and consistent effect on behavior of

each and every acceptable student."

Harold W. Bernard's view: "Programmed learning refers to the arrangement of instructional

material in progressive sequences".

Michael J. Apter's view: "Programmed instruction is a method of instruction in which the

information to be taught is broken down into small units which are to be presented to the

student (usually in written form) in a carefully planned sequence. Each unit or 'frame'

contains not only conformation but is also terminated with a question."

View of Smith and Moore: "Programmed instruction is the process of arranging the material

to be leaned into a series of sequential steps. Usually it moves the student from a familiar

background into a complex and net set of concepts, principles and understanding."

View of Espich and Williams: "Programmed instruction is a planned sequence of

experiences leading to proficiency, in terms of response relationship that has proven to be

effective".

Edgar Dale's view: "Programmed instruction is systematic, step by step, self-instructional

program aimed to ensure the learning of stated behavior".

In the light of the above definitions it can be concluded that programmed learning is a

method of individualized instructions in which the student receives information relating to

his won needs in progressive sequences but in small units.

Characteristics of Programmed learning:

1. Individualized instructions

2. Logical sequence of material

3. Interaction between the learner and the program

4. Immediate knowledge of results

5. Organized nature of knowledge

6. Learner's own speed

7. Constant evaluation

Principles of programmed learning (F.U.Edward in his book" Programmed

Instruction: Techniques and Trends" classified them as:

Mandatory principles Obligatory principles

1. Objective specification 1.Overt/active responding

2. Empirical testing 2.Immediate feedback

3. Self pacing 3.Small step size

Fundamental Principles of Programmed Learning

1. Principle of small steps

2. Principle of active responding

3. Principle of immediate confirmation

4. Principle of self-pacing

5. Principle of evaluation

Styles of Programming(Types of program)

Prominent important conventional styles of programming are as under:

1. Linear Programming

2. Branching Programming

3. Mathetics

4. Computer-assisted instruction

5. Learner-controlled instruction

Here we shall discuss the first two.

1. Linear or extrinsic style of programming

The linear style of programming was developed by Skinner and his associates(1954).This

is also known as the Skinnerian style of programming. The techniques associated with

this style of programming are based on the principle that the learner's original response

should be gradually altered or shaped until he meets some standard of acceptable

performance.

Basic assumptions of linear programming:

1. Activeness

2. Small units

3. Immediate reinforcement

4. Psychological arrangement of a contents

5. Freedom

6. Hindrance by errors

Features or advantages of linear style of programming:

1. Linear arrangement

2. Small steps

3. Controlled responses

4. Response is emphasized

5. Structural responses

6. Active responding

7. Immediate feedback

8. Prompting

9. Self-pacing

10. Minimum errors

11. Simple mechanism

12. Best suited in certain subject areas

13. Discouraging cheating

14. Skip-linear program

Applications of Linear Program: Linear programs have effectively been used in the

following situations:

1. Small children

2. Slow learner

3. Homogenous

4. Hierarchical order

5. Immediate feedback

6. Inadequate initial behavior

7. Difficult material

8. Specific terminology

9. Less motivated teachers

10. Remedial instruction and self-study

11. Complete mastery

Limitations of Linear Style of Programming:

1. Lack of motivation

2. No freedom of choice

3. No development of discriminative power

4. Encouraging guess work

5. Serial order learning

6. Difficulty in finding background

7. Not student centered

8. No specified role of teacher

9. Teacher-proof program

2. Branching or intrinsic style of programming:

The branching or intrinsic style (method) of programming was originated by Norman A.

Crowder. He defined branching programming as a program which adapts to the needs of the

student without the medium of an extrinsic device such as computer.

Branching program may be produced for use on a teaching machine or in a book form. The

book form is known as a 'scrambled text' because the pages do not follow in a normal

sequence.

Assumptions of Branching Program:

1. Needs of the learner

2. Wholeness of the content

3. Meaningful units

4. Analysis of the task

5. New material

6. No hindrance by errors

7. Remediation

8. Multiple choice items

9. Sufficient freedom

10. Discrimination

Techniques in Branch Programming (types of branching):

1. Backward branching: It is based on the principle of 'repeating the missed frames'. As

shown in the diagram below the learner from frameNo.1 of the main stream goes to frame

No. 2 of the main steam only if he makes a correct choice. But if he makes a wrong

choice, he is led to remedial frame wherein he is given some more help in understanding

the concept and in solving the solution by a better logic. He will be then directed to the

original frame No. 1 so that he can red it again and answer it correctly in the light of the

remedial material he has received. So the learner who has committed error goes through

the same frame twice (once before the remedial material and once after the remedial

material).

2. Forward branching: In the forward branching, whether the learner makes a wrong

choice or correct choice he will always be going to new pages, thus physically

progressing from page to page.

Principles of branching program:

1. Principle of exposition

2. Principle of diagnosis

3. Principle of remediation

Features or characteristics or advantages of branching program:

1. Based on traditional tutorial method

2. Individualized instruction

3. Larger frame

4. Multiple choice questions

5. Freedom to choose path

6. Alertness of learners

7. Detection and correction of errors

8. Development of discrimination and creativity

9. Useful in concept learning

10. Controlled material

11. Psychological and social motivation

12. Easier to develop frames

13. Teaching and instruction

14. Programmed text

Limitations of branching program:

1. Guessing

2. Difficulty in multiple choice questions

3. Difficulty in arranging the branching sequences

4. Unfeasibility of infinite branching

5. Not suitable for small children

6. Inability to control the student

7. Costly

8. Emphasis on remediation

9. No sequence of pages

10. Suitable feedback

11. Programmer's imagination