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Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear fusion is the phenomenon in which multiple atomic nuclei combine to form a single, larger nucleus. Fusion mostly occurs under extreme conditions, due to the large amount of energy it requires. Thus, examples of fusion tend to be exotic; such as stellar nucleosynthesis, the creation of new elements, and thermonuclear weapons.

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I am what is being investigated to contain fusion reaction?

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You are most likely referring to a magnetic confinement fusion device, such as a tokamak or a stellarator. These devices use powerful magnetic fields to confine and control high-temperature plasma, enabling the conditions necessary for a controlled fusion reaction to occur. Scientists and researchers study and investigate these devices in order to develop a viable and sustainable method of achieving nuclear fusion as a clean and abundant source of energy.

Which of the following could result from the fusion of carbon with itself?

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The fusion of carbon with itself can result in the formation of various isotopes, such as carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14. These isotopes differ in the number of neutrons in their nucleus but have the same number of protons, which is 6. Carbon-12 is the most common and stable isotope of carbon.

What is the process called when hydrogen atoms fuse together to form helium?

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Nuclear fusion. This is the process the sun uses to radiate all that light and heat.

Is nuclear fusion nonrenewable or renewable source and why?

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Nonrenewable, eventually the oceans will run out of extractable deuterium. But thatt probably won't happen for a few million years.

What is ITER?

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Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia says, "In computer science, an iterator is an object which allows a programmer to traverse through all the elements of a collection, regardless of its specific implementation. An iterator is sometimes called a cursor, especially within the context of a database."

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iterator

Compare and contrast fusion and fission?

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With nuclear fission, a large atomic nucleus (such as a uranium nucleus) breaks apart into smaller nuclei, and energy is released. With nuclear fusion, small atomic nuclei (such as hydrogen) join to become larger nuclei, and energy is released. Fusion of hydrogen releases much more energy than any other type of either fusion or fission. Note that the dividing line between heavy nuclei and light nuclei is the iron nucleus, which is at the perfect point of nuclear stability, so that neither fusion nor fission of iron nuclei would release any energy.

Why does nuclear fusion occur in the core?

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At the core of a star, the sun for example, the pressure due to gravity is greatest and gives the best conditions for fusion to start. Heat then flows outwards in all directions from the core.

Fission and fusion of nuclear power plant?

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Fission is the splitting of an atom, fusion is the joining of 2 atoms into one. In most fission, neutrons are bomabarded at the nucleus of uranium or plutonium and this causes a ripple effect of more neutons being released from the fuel. The process generates large amounts of heat which is either used for destruction or steam engines. Fusion most often occurs with 2 Hydrogens being fused together to form helium. Deuterium (Hydrogen with a neutron and proton instead of just a proton) and tritium (one proton and two neutrons) are high energy atoms that are used in testing nuclear fusion. Our star (the sun) is based, like most stars, on Hydrogen being fused to generate heat and Helium.

Does nuclear fusion produce more radioactive waste than nuclear fision?

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The waste from coal power stations has virtually no radioactive waste where as a

nuclear plants waste is nearly all toxic.

Completely Wrong. All coal waste is toxic. Coal fired power plants chuck out all the radioactive elements that were in the coal that was burned. This is fairly old news from the 70's. Excellent source: http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev26-34/text/colmain.html .

More facts that are totally ignored by the media as governors and industrial groups lobby to continue to launch toxic, hazardous and poisonous elements and compounds into the air from the stacks, and onto the land downwind.

The following is quoted. There is no copyright on this article at this website. Thanks to ORNL.

Web site provided by Oak Ridge National Laboratory's Communications and External Relations

ORNL is a multi-program research and development facility managed by UT-Battelle for the US Department of Energy

"Because existing coal-fired power plants vary in size and electrical output, to calculate the annual coal consumption of these facilities, assume that the typical plant has an electrical output of 1000 megawatts. Existing coal-fired plants of this capacity annually burn about 4 million tons of coal each year. Further, considering that in 1982 about 616 million short tons (2000 pounds per ton) of coal was burned in the United States (from 833 million short tons mined, or 74%), the number of typical coal-fired plants necessary to consume this quantity of coal is 154.

Using these data, the releases of radioactive materials per typical plant can be calculated for any year. For the year 1982, assuming coal contains uranium and thorium concentrations of 1.3 ppm and 3.2 ppm, respectively, each typical plant released 5.2 tons of uranium (containing 74 pounds of uranium-235) and 12.8 tons of thorium that year. Total U.S. releases in 1982 (from 154 typical plants) amounted to 801 tons of uranium (containing 11,371 pounds of uranium-235) and 1971 tons of thorium. These figures account for only 74% of releases from combustion of coal from all sources.

Releases in 1982 from worldwide combustion of 2800 million tons of coal totaled 3640 tons of uranium (containing 51,700 pounds of uranium-235) and 8960 tons of thorium.

Based on the predicted combustion of 2516 million tons of coal in the United States and 12,580 million tons worldwide during the year 2040, cumulative releases for the 100 years of coal combustion following 1937 are predicted to be:

U.S. release (from combustion of 111,716 million tons):

Uranium: 145,230 tons (containing 1031 tons of uranium-235)

Thorium: 357,491 tons

Worldwide release (from combustion of 637,409 million tons):

Uranium: 828,632 tons (containing 5883 tons of uranium-235)

Thorium: 2,039,709 tons

Radioactivity from Coal Combustion

The main sources of radiation released from coal combustion include not only uranium and thorium but also daughter products produced by the decay of these isotopes, such as radium, radon, polonium, bismuth, and lead. Although not a decay product, naturally occurring radioactive potassium-40 is also a significant contributor.

According to the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP), the average radioactivity per short ton of coal is 17,100 millicuries/4,000,000 tons, or 0.00427 millicuries/ton. This figure can be used to calculate the average expected radioactivity release from coal combustion. For 1982 the total release of radioactivity from 154 typical coal plants in the United States was, therefore, 2,630,230 millicuries.

Thus, by combining U.S. coal combustion from 1937 (440 million tons) through 1987 (661 million tons) with an estimated total in the year 2040 (2516 million tons), the total expected U.S. radioactivity release to the environment by 2040 can be determined. That total comes from the expected combustion of 111,716 million tons of coal with the release of 477,027,320 millicuries in the United States. Global releases of radioactivity from the predicted combustion of 637,409 million tons of coal would be 2,721,736,430 millicuries.

For comparison, according to NCRP Reports No. 92 and No. 95, population exposure from operation of 1000-MWe nuclear and coal-fired power plants amounts to 490 person-rem/year for coal plants and 4.8 person-rem/year for nuclear plants. Thus, the population effective dose equivalent from coal plants is 100 times that from nuclear plants. For the complete nuclear fuel cycle, from mining to reactor operation to waste disposal, the radiation dose is cited as 136 person-rem/year; the equivalent dose for coal use, from mining to power plant operation to waste disposal, is not listed in this report and is probably unknown.

...

Although trace quantities of radioactive heavy metals are not nearly as likely to produce adverse health effects as the vast array of chemical by-products from coal combustion, the accumulated quantities of these isotopes over 150 or 250 years could pose a significant future ecological burden and potentially produce adverse health effects, especially if they are locally accumulated. Because coal is predicted to be the primary energy source for electric power production in the foreseeable future, the potential impact of long-term accumulation of by-products in the biosphere should be considered. "

Personally, more concerned about the complete waste slate, but the radioactive portion always deserves mention.

Simple search by high school chemistry students found the West Virginia coal trace elements shown in an average ppm for nearly 800 samples.

Antimony (Sb)

1.02

Arsenic (As)

17.13

Barium (Ba)

109.86

Beryllium (Be)

2.57

Bismuth (Bi)

0.32

Boron (B)

20.01

Bromine (Br)

23.88

Cadmium (Cd)

0.096

Cerium (Ce)

16.88

Cesium (Cs)

1.15

Chlorine (Cl)

959

Chromium (Cr)

17.85

Cobalt (Co)

7.41

Copper (Cu)

20.4

Dysprosium (Dy)

2.03

Erbium (Er)

1.09

Europium (Eu)

0.33

Fluorine (F)

62.68

Gadolinium (Gd)

1.46

Gallium (Ga)

6.45

Germanium (Ge)

3.09

Gold (Au)

6.062

Hafnium (Hf)

0.72

Holmium (Ho)

0.52

Indium (In)

0.91

Iridium (Ir)

0.95

Lanthanum (La)

9.23

Lead (Pb)

8.19

Lithium (Li)

19.09

Lutetium (Lu)

0.133

Manganese (Mn)

21.29

Mercury (Hg)

0.19

Molybdenum (Mo)

2.37

Neodymium (Nd)

8.65

Nickel (Ni)

13.99

Niobium (Nb)

3.21

Praseodymium (Pr)

3.11

Rhenium (Re)

0.57

Rubidium (Rb)

23.62

Samarium (Sm)

1.52

Scandium (Sc)

3.71

Selenium (Se)

4.2

Silver (Ag)

0.058

Strontium (Sr)

91.68

Tantalum (Ta)

0.195

Tellurium (Te)

0.083

Terbium (Tb)

0.261

Thallium (Tl)

1.194

Thorium (Th)

3.02

Thulium (Tm)

0.283

Tin (Sn)

2.2

Tungsten (W)

0.79

Uranium (U)

1.59

Vanadium (V)

24.36

Ytterbium (Yb)

0.8

Yttrium (Y)

7.53

Zinc (Zn)

14.97

Zirconium (Zr)

24.32

To determine emissions of these elements just follow the example above with the Thorium and Uranium and factor from those tons.

What layer of the sun does nuclear fusion occur?

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It has to be at hundreds of millions of degrees kelvin, before a fusion reaction between deuterium and tritium will start

Is a hydrogen bomb the same as nuclear fusion?

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Yes and no:

  • nuclear fusion makes hydrogen bombs possible
  • an actual hydrogen bomb is a rather complex device, involving both nuclear fission and nuclear fusion triggering each other in a precisely timed sequence. Most hydrogen bombs derive 90% of their yield from nuclear fission, almost all of this is from fission of uranium-238 in the tamper around the last fusion stage caused by high energy (15 MeV) fusion neutrons.

Hydrogen bombs operate on a fission-fusion-fission sequence. The full process of a typical modern hydrogen bomb goes something like this:

  1. The X-Unit (master timing controller) fires 32 detonators on the explosive lenses of the fission primary stage.
  2. The explosive lenses create an implosion shock wave which crushes the hollow tritium gas filled sealed pit made of plutonium to about 1/3 its normal size (about 27 times its normal density and very supercritical).
  3. The X-Unit fires the electrical neutron source (a miniature particle accelerator accelerating tritium ions). The fusionof these tritium ions fires neutrons through the supercritical plutonium core.
  4. Fission begins in the primary stage core.
  5. When the compressed tritium gas in the sealed pit inside the primary core is heated enough by fission, fusion begins in the center of the primary stage core.
  6. Neutrons from the tritium fusion in the center of the primary core "boosts" the fission of the plutonium of the primary core.
  7. X-rays from the primary stage travel through the radiation channel from the primary stage to the cylindrical secondary stage and down its length.
  8. The x-rays cause a radiation implosion of the secondary stage, compressing it rapidly to very high density.
  9. Neutrons from the primary stage travel to the "sparkplug", a rod of plutonium in the center of the secondary stage and running its length, which by this time the radiation implosion has compressed to supercriticality.
  10. The "sparkplug" fissions, emitting neutrons into the lithium deuteride layer of the secondary around the "sparkplug". The lithium captures these neutrons and produces tritium, resulting in a deuterium tritium fusion fuel mix.
  11. The "sparkplug" continues fissioning, pushing out against the radiation implosion. This combined inward and outward pressure compresses and heats the deuterium tritium fusion fuel mix until fusion begins in the secondary stage.
  12. High energy (15 MeV) neutrons from the secondary stage fusion cause fission in the uranium-238 tamper surrounding the secondary.

How many fissions and fusions was that now?

How does nuclear fusion produce energy in stars?

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Stars operate on nuclear fusion. They operate on E=mc2, turning a little bit of mass into a whole lot of energy. Here's how: Hydrogen (atomic weight 1.008) is pulled into the star by gravity. Four hydrogen atoms get fused together to form one helium atom (atomic weight 4.003). If you look at the atomic weights (4H - 1He) there is a little bit of mass lost!. It turns to energy. Closer to the core of the star, helium fuses into heavier atoms like lithium and boron and carbon and oxygen. But iron is the last atom formed in regular stars by fusion. Fusion stops in all stars eventually as the fuel runs out. Because as smaller atoms get fused into larger atoms, it takes more energy and returns less at each step up until the atoms are iron. Then fusion would require more energy than the fusion could produce. This cooling results in a decrease of the cores' internal pressure that normally balances the force of gravity. Ultimately the star collapses and explodes. This process forms all the higher elements beyond iron. If it's heavy enough, the remnants become a neutron star, or even a black hole. If the star is big enough, it can reach a critical internal pressure that re-ignites the fusion process, but this normally happens suddenly and blows the star apart. Fusion stops in all stars eventually. Because as smaller atoms get fused into larger atoms, it takes more energy and returns less at each step up until the atoms are iron. Then fusion would require more energy than the fusion could return. This cooling results in a decrease of the cores' internal pressure that normally balances the force of gravity. If the star is big enough, it can reach a critical internal pressure that re-ignites the fusion process, but this normally happens suddenly and blows the star apart. == == Fusion is normally refferred to different objects combining.

What is a major disadvantage of using nuclear fusion reactors?

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Today these installations are not surely controlled.

Is the energy conversion process of nuclear fusion appears to best explain the source of solar energy?

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The energy conversion process of nuclear fusion appears to best explain the source of solar energy is true. Nuclear fusion is mass that is converted to energy and nuclei combinations.

What percentage of the world's electricity is supplied by nuclear fusion reactors?

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I will give you 2 answers. First and most correctly, 0%. We have not found a way to initiate and control fusion energy in a way that is economically viable. The control part is key. An example of an uncontrolled nuclear fusion reation is the Hydrogen Bomb. Second the smart ass answr, since the sun supplies most of the energy to the earth, which plants used and had become oil, most of our energy comes from nuclear fusion. The first answer is correct though. Also it may be possible that you are mistaking nuclear fusion for fission, which delivers 11% of the world's energy needs

What kind of energy is given off from a nuclear fusion reaction and from a nuclear fission reaction?

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the "disappearance" of a small amount of mass. Most of the energy from nuclear fusion of deuterium and tritium, which is the most likely reaction to be harnessed by man, is given off as kinetic energy of the neutrons formed. This is one of the problems involved-how to make use of this energy, even when the plasma can be contained and made to fuse, which has only been achieved for brief bursts so far. The neutrons will have to be stopped in some material surrounding the plasma to produce heat, but what material will stand up to these conditions is not clear.

In nuclear fission most of the energy appears first as kinetic energy of the fission fragments, which are then stopped in the fuel resulting in heat being generated which can be removed by the coolant, water or gas. There is also some gamma ray energy released.

Is nuclear energy produced by fusion?

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Absolutely, mostly as 15 MeV neutrons. This causes neutron activated secondary radioactivity in surrounding material. On decommissioning a fusion reactor (assuming we ever figure out how to build one) this part of the reactor would have to be handled as radioactive waste, just as the non-fuel assemblies of a fission reactor must be treated now. There is also alpha radiation, but the biggest problem here is weakening and flaking of a thin layer of reactor vessel wall due to helium bubble accumulation.

What Equation involves nuclear fission and nuclear fusion?

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Involving fission & fusion at the same time? These reactions are completely different from each other and have no physical or mathematical relationships. I suppose you could claim that a hydrogen bomb that uses a fission trigger is an example of such an equation, however, the fission occurs before the fusion, so they are still separate and distinct from each other. The mass-energy equivalence equation, E=mc^2, is used to calculate the energy released due to the missing masses found in the fission or fusion calculations, but it comes at the end to convert the mass result into energy only.

What are the costs of nuclear fusion energy?

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The costs of nuclear fusion energy are indeterminate, bacause we have not yet successfully generated a sustained fusion reaction.

Distinguish between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion?

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Fission is the splitting of the nucleus of a large heavy atom such as uranium into two smaller parts. Fusion is the sticking together of two light nuclei to make a heavier one, as occurs in the stars. Both processes release energy.

How does nuclear fusion create elements inside stars?

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Nuclei of small atoms fuse together to form nuclei of larger atoms. The process can continue to form larger atoms until, after iron, the fusion is no longer exothermic and so absorbs energy.

Why have scientists been unable to control nuclear fusion reactions?

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The primary issue is one of containment.

In order to initiate a nuclear fusion reaction, you need to strip away the electron shells of the atoms, and you need to move the nuclei close enough together for the attractive strong interaction to overcome the repulsive electromagnetic interaction. Stripping away the electron shells, i.e. creating a plasma, requires ultra high temperatures. Moving the nuclei close enough together requires ultra high pressures.

Problem: We have nothing that can maintain and/or contain this temperature and pressure. No currently known material can do this. The stars do it easily, because of gravity, but a reactor large enough to take advantage of gravity would be much larger than the Earth. Not even Jupiter is large enough, though some say it is close.

So, we are left with alternative forms of containment.

One possibility is magnetic containment. Problem is, in order to do that, we need superconducting magnets, so we are faced with having ultra cold components in close proximity to ultra hot components. That, to say the least, is technologically difficult. Presently, the ITER, a tokamak design, is being constructed in Cadarache, France to attempt this. Timeline is set for first testing in 2019, with first fusion in 2026. Note, however, that we are only talking 500 MW of power, and then, only for 480 seconds. All this at a projected cost of 15 billion euros.

Another possibility is inertial containment. This is how the hydrogen bomb works, but that is an uncontrolled, destructive reaction. The NIF, a laser implosion device, has been constructed in Livermore, California (USA). It generates 4MJ pulses that can theoretically induce 45MJ fusion pulses. Problem is, that it takes 422MJ to charge the system's capacitors, so the total energy curve is backwards, and the system heats up so much that cooldown is required after each firing - they are attempting to be able to do 5 firings a day - hardly any kind of continuous output. As a result, this is only an experimental facility, though so is the ITER, described above.

Best guess - we will not achieve controlled fusion power for at least 100 years. Even the projected goals for the next 50 years do not include any kind of sustainable reaction, let alone any kind of commercial deployment.

Compare and contrast nuclear fission and nuclear fusion?

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The process of combining two nuclei to form a heavier nucleus and thereby releasing energy is nuclear fusion. When a neutron strikes an atom of uranium-235, the atom captures the neutron, becoming an atom of uranium-236 with an excited nucleus. The U-236 nucleus vibrates rapidly and cannot hold itself together; it splits into several pieces (smaller atoms, free neutrons, etc.) in a process called nuclear fission (fission means "division"), releasing an enormous amount of heat energy and gamma rays.