There are two main types: non-narcotic analgesics for mild pain, and narcotic analgesics for severe pain.
NSAIDS- Non Sterodial anti-inflammatory drugs, like aspirin, ibuproufen, naproxen sodium work with exymes to decrease or inhibit prostaglandins. Tylonel does not work this way. It is NOT an anti-inflammatory. and some think a different type of enzyme which hasn't been discovered yet works with Tylenol.
Narcotics are selective central nervous system depressants.
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As far as I know, it messes with your nerves that trasmit the pain signal from the area to the brain. It does nothing to stop the actual reason the injured area gives off the pain signals, it just breaks/blocks the chain of nerves so the signal cannot reach the brain, effectively stopping you experience the feeling of pain.
They prevent damaged cells from releasing prostaglandin. Without this chemical, the brain won't get messages of pain as quickly or clearly. And, as a result, your pain either goes away or becomes less intense.
Painkillers act on the nervous system in a variety of ways to relieve pain. They also produce a variety of side effects. For more on the mechanisms and affects of painkillers, also known as analgesics, you may see the Related Link.
It's not something that can be easily answered in just a few sentences. You should research the drug in particular and read everything from it's benefits to its side effects. Your body will react different depending on which drug you take and if your using a combination of different meds.
There are different mechanisms for different classes of pain killers. The most common, NSAIDS, such as aspirin, work by preventing certain enzymes (COX2 is of importance) form working. These enzymes are important in the production of pain and inflammation mediators known as prostaglandins. So taking aspirin means the body cannot manufacture prostaglandins and hence kills the pain, inflammation and brings down a fever.
Actually, it doesn't. It works on all pain, in general, and only because you were aware of the specific pain, that once it's gone, seems to have been targeted by the pain relieving medication. It actually did not know which pain you had, it just made you less aware of any pain you may have had by reducing all possible pain types.