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Why areal velocity is constant in central force?
If the force is constant then this will make the velocity of the object spinning constant as well, and for the velocity to be constant all the forces must be balanced and therefore constant
What is areal velocity?
The areal velocity of a particle is the rate at which area is swept out as the particle travels along a curve. The area is swept out by a vector (starting at the origin.)In words:Imagine an empty space with a single point in it. That point doesn't move; it represents the the origin. Now image a particle flying around in that space. An arrow always points from the origin to that particle (and touches the particle). As the particle moves, that arrow moves, possibly getting longer or shorter depending on where the particle is. Instead of just moving though, it creates a "path" of area. Everywhere that arrow touches in the space, it "paints" that space, so as it moves, more and more space gets "painted". This "painted space" is the area. The rate at which the amount of this "painted space" changes is the areal velocity of that particle.As equations:dA/dt=r x v/2dA/dt=L/(2m)Notice that the areal velocity is a vector.
Why does a can collapse when heated and put in water?
A heated can has under gone superficial (areal) expansion and when cooled suddenly by immersing in water "shrinks" in a very "haphazard" way leading to collapse. Now the forces at action are thermal- the so called thermal stresses. Now there is another example of how a can could collapse. Water is poured into a can and and heated so that copious steam formed could escape through an opening and then after sometime this opening is closed tightly and the can is "bathed" in cold water. The can collapses. The forces unleashed are different in this case!
How do you use radiesthesia?
SECRETS OF PHYSICAL RADIESTHESIA /THE ROMAN ROD/ INTRODUCTION The revelation of the Roman Rod's secret began when I received a shabby old manuscript describing its construction. The old man that showed it to me claimed that his ancestors were all priests and that he had received this manuscript as a heritage, and that its secret had never been disclosed outside of his family. He faced my skepticism with the following words - Now you will see that the device works for real. He successfully demonstrated his device by locating one kilogram of silver, which I had hidden myself. He told me how he had conducted many tests, how he had devoted his life to this art, and how he had succeeded in discovering natural gold. However, this fortune was darkened by the lack of an offspring. He was incredibly miserable for the loss of his wife. The old man also shared his disappointment with his relatives, who always tried to extort him money and put a hand on his wealth. Then he explained to me in detail exactly what the cane (the roman rod) was, what was its construction, what were the necessary conditions to make it work, what were its advantages and disadvantages. Before I present to you what I have learnt then, I should mention, that what has crossed my mind right away, was the question about which physical phenomenon was hidden in this ancient device. Soon after this disclosure, the old man died and I devoted myself to research activity. It took me about ten years to discover the secret of the Roman Rod and the Physical Radiesthesia. I came to the conclusion that behind the success of the ancient radiesthesists, is hidden a completely real physical phenomenon, which I have called "Gravity resonance". In 2002, I began to formulate and publish* my new energetic paradigm about the construction of the Universe. The last one is based on the Energy quantum. In my theory there are only two fundamental forces (the Absolute Entropy and the Absolute Gravity), and the relativity is reversed (both energy and matter are relative in the absolute space-time). In one of the subsequent articles of this series, I will also publish an article about the Gravity Resonance. At first I had no intentions of publishing what I had learnt from the old man, but the substance of those articles has arrived close to the Gravity resonance and, at the end, I changed my mind. The time to publish the secret of the Roman Rod has arrived. CONSTRUCTION The original Roman Rod is made out of a glass tube. It is 70 cm long. On one of its ends is attached an axis. In front of the axis (on the long side) is placed a "resonator" (metal), and behind the axis (at the end of the tube) there is a reservoir filled with an exciter (clay). The axis is finely grinned, made of a copper alloy. The axis is placed in a cylindrical handle. It is made out of the same alloy and its bottom is curved out. This is how is formed a sort of a bearing. The glass tube itself (silicon) corresponds to the chemical element which is predominant in the earth's crust (the gravity background). The resonator is a cylinder made of gold, silver, copper or other metal. The resonator should be placed firmly in front of the axis, inside the glass tube (antenna) in front of the exciter. The exciter is a glass cylinder filled with radioactive clay. The old man used to call it "dead fuller's earth" due to the lack of something alive inside. For the better placement of the axis, the old man used to oil it with lard. Although quite primitive, this ancient locating instrument works for real. Using the Roman Rod you can locate (target) 500 grams of gold from a 200 meters' distance. Everybody can do it on his own, to test it and to assure himself in the authenticity of this ancient secret. BALANCE AND REACTION On the contrary to all expectations imposed on society by the "contemporary radiesthesists", you do not need powerful bio-energy or extra-sensorial abilities or any other type of extraordinary sensibility, in order to work with the Roman Rod. In order to make the instrument work in your hands, the essential condition is to master the balance of the device. In order to arrive at this skill you should free (empty out) the rod from the exciter and the resonator. You should practice for a very long period (at least a couple of weeks) to balance the empty rod. What you should strive to achieve is a very smooth, sweeping motion of the antenna in the horizontal plain, without any trembling, deviation or false biophysical (mental) reaction. With the empty rod you would not be able to locate any type of object, because the content of the antenna is identical with the surrounding background of the earth's crust. At first, it would probably be difficult for you to move smoothly the rod In order to make the training easier, you could lower the front end of the antenna slightly (two - three degrees), until you master the balance. You have to achieve a motion around un sector of 90 degrees for about 4-5 seconds. At first you could move the antenna a little bit slower (for about 7-8 seconds). The balance is easiest to achieve with a double handle. Your hands should be held tightly to your body, while the spinning movement of the device in the plain is produced by the waist. It is easier to make a movement with the hands (hand), but it is not smooth enough and will introduce instability and subjectivity to the test. After you have practiced like this for a couple of weeks, you may load the rod with the resonator and the exciter (see figure 1) It is important noticing that their positions are strictly fixed. If you exchange their places or if they are not in the indicated positions, the rod would not work. The old man was mocking the contemporary radiesthesists who would put into their mouth or hold in hand the "testimony". Some of them, who are more advanced, invent all types of antenna or put the indicator in all possible positions. However, all of them do not have the proper resonator and do not put it in the proper position. Now you may proceed with locating visible objects. In order to locate a visible object, you should be about 30-50 meters away from it. Start with the smooth, sweeping motion at least 30 degrees before the line that connects you with the position of the object. The first 5-10 degrees would be lost due to the occurrence of misbalance in the device (a complicated complex of a couple of movements). If you master the balance of the device and work in optimal conditions for Gravity Resonance, you should get a clear reaction in the direction of the object, which is observed when the antenna stops (remains) still towards the object regardless of your further movements. You may experiment by changing the speed of the movements and the slope of the antenna in order to achieve the most powerful possible reaction. In order to get a good balance, your sight should follow the front end of the antenna, and not be fixed on the object. Only after the device is in action (there is a clear reaction), you may, for one instant (momentary) look ahead in order to see the direction of the location. You should not move the device randomly without following the front end of the antenna and constantly looking ahead. This would worsen your balance and would introduce subjectivity to your test. For air objects the reaction of the rod is more accurate, but it is possible that the device work with some diversion (deviation) to the left or to the right. If you are too close (up to 30 meters), you will get a large diversion caused by the dying out of the horizontal gravity component and the influence of the Coriolis forces. In order to get a good reaction, you should master the balance of the device, should have a good resonator, an active exciter and the object should have a sufficient mass. Here are some examples of the minimal mass of the resonator and the object, which guarantee the proper functioning of the Roman Rod. Resonator - Object Gold 50 gr. - 500 gr. Silver: 100 gr. - 5000 gr. Copper: 150 gr. - 50 kg. A beginning operator, after 2-3 weeks of intense practices, could successfully locate the objects from the example from a 50-100 meters distance. An advanced operator could locate them from a double, and even greater, distance. The best reaction is obtained when the antenna moves around the horizontal plain (horizontally). If the front end is too inclined, then the reaction will be weak (poor). If you lift the front end of the antenna too much, the reaction will be strong, but the balance will be destabilized, which would introduce subjectivity to the test. If you do not obtain a clear reaction of the objects described above, you should continue practicing until you master the balance. Some people need much more time (months) in order to achieve satisfactory results in mastering the balance. Good balance is obtained after continuous practicing for at least a couple of months. If your hands are shaking, you can take up to 50 gr. of alcohol. The alcohol will calm your muscles and you will have smoother movements. When you obtain a clear reaction (location) of a visible object, then you may start to increase the distance, in order to master your sensibility to the strength of the signal. The more you practice with objects with different masses from different distances, the more you will develop an analytical sensibility to the strength of the signal. Practicing really, really a lot would allow you to obtain a routine and stable reaction. The smoother you get in your sweeping motion, the clearer the reaction (location) would be. When you are satisfied with your skills in locating known objects, you may begin to search for unknown objects on a testing field. It is important that before your friends hide an object from you, you use the rod in order to verify the presence of the some metal in the field. If there is a signal(s) then change the field. It is possible that there be an unknown objects or ore bodies. When working on an unknown territory, it is recommended that you begin the location from a position of at least a couple of tens of meters outside of the explored area. It is recommended that you be around 50 meters away in order to obtain a clear reaction and a minimal deviation. The smaller the mass of the object and the closer you are to it (in the nearby zone), the weaker the reaction will be and the larger deviations will be obtained (in regard to its actual position). It is important that you balance the antenna calmly and precisely and that you free yourself from the environment and from any kind of suggestions. Exploration with the Roman Rod is based on the Gravity Resonance and is by nature a physical reaction. A necessary condition for a successful location is the acquisition of a good balance. Worries, suggestions etc, could affect your balance and introduce a biophysical subjectivity to your test. Some operators who are more unstable psychologically are even able to invent an object(s) by damaging mentally the balance of the device. If necessary, move the rod more rigidly, which can cause you to miss a little metal object, but will guarantee that you do not receive unreal reactions (due to misbalance). Under complicated geological conditions (formation of mines, sharp geological boundaries, etc.) it is possible to feel trembling or pulling of the antenna. In this case, it could be necessary to repeat the test over one sector more than once. Under complicated conditions, repeat the test until you are certain that the reaction (location) you obtain is objective and clear. Exploring a limited area is easy when you divide it into quadrants of 100 x 100 meters. For each point of this grid, you should do a complete circular exploration with overlapping sectors. In order to cover the 360 degrees, you should do 5-6 sectors of 90 degrees. It is better that the overlapping is of 15-20 degrees. Do not forget that at the beginning and at the end of the movement, your balance is worsened. In case of a reaction, it is necessary to determine whether the signal is close or distant. In order to do this, move 30-50 meters to the left or to the right, perpendicular on the line of the location vector beam (refers to the vector along the axis of the antenna directed towards the object). From this new position, follow carefully the direction of the signal. If the beams are almost parallel, then the signal is distant. If you find out that the beams form a large angle, then you have a close signal. In the latter case, begin to walk around the object from a distance and enclose it with a series of beams located 30-50 meters away from each other. After a couple of subsequent beams you will have the intersection zone delineated. If you have been too close, you would have to step away in order to straighten the reaction and eliminate the deviations caused by the Coriolis forces. If, while you move away from the object (along the line of the location vector beam), the direction of the reaction changes, means that you have been too close. After you have identified well the intersection zone, you may proceed with locating of the object and identifying its position by (measuring the angles formed by) intersecting the location beams. In order to do this, you should identify the approximate center of the intersection zone. From this position, measure 50 meters in each of the four geographical directions. From these positions, make precise tests towards the intersection zone. It is possible that you obtain a deviation (left or right reaction) from the actual position of the object. If the deviation is large only from one of the directions, the object is usually closer to this position. For further guarantees you may increase the distance from the points to 70 meters. Use roulettes, threads, landmarks and other auxiliary means of signaling and precise measuring of the beams. Do not try to artificially (biophysically) reduce (limit) the area enclosed by the beams. It is better to measure a larger zone and keep the object inside, instead of covering a smaller area and leave the object outside of it. Besides the distance, you should also measure the displacement of the device (the antenna) from the position of the object. If the object is located sharply under or over your level, it is possible to have no reaction at all. If you are looking for a large object, but the signal is too weak, it is possible that you have a large displacement or a large distance from it. You should also keep in mind that the device functions in the horizontal plain (antenna horizon). The antenna of the device functions along the horizontal line, due to the horizontal gravity component! When exploring an intercepted terrain you should locate the quadrants so that you do not have more than 10% of displacement from the destination. This means that, if the object is 100 meters away, the displacement of the antenna horizon from the position of the object should not exceed 10 meters. It is best that for every 5-10 meters of displacement, you have an exploration point. You should keep in mind that the sharp changes in the layout of the terrain as well as the complex land formations may lead to larger deviations, unclear reaction and even loss of signal. The conditions for the gravity location are good when the terrain is flat, the object is big and the distances are little (up to a couple of hundred of meters). If the object is placed in a cave or other type of a build structure, it is possible to obtain substantial deviations (to the right or to the left) from its actual position. The reaction of large point objects is the clearest and the easier to identify. Linear objects produce different reactions from the different positions. If you are along the line of their location, you would obtain a point reaction If you are perpendicular to their line, you would have a stretching (long) reaction or two reactions, one at each end of the object. For areal objects, the reaction is usually stretched, weaker when entering the area of the object and stronger when leaving it. You should always explore the terrain with double motions, from the left to the right as well as from the right to the left. Thus, you will be able to identify the differences in the signal, which are typical for point, linear and areal objects. You should always exam the entire 360 degrees (with the overlapping of the sectors) in order not to miss a signal. If you follow a signal only with little sectors, it is possible to lose it or to go after a new (another) signal, which you have not detected from the more distant points during the test. You should always work under optimal conditions for the gravity resonance. If the meteorological conditions are not suitable, postpone the test or make a shelter on every spot. You should remember that the wind, even if not strong, introduces significant deviations (takes away the antenna) and could confuse also an experienced operator. MAINTENANCE Apart from being fragile (the original is made of glass), the rod has for an exciter a radioactive clay, which gets consumed. It is recommended that you change the clay with a fresh (active) one every month. Preserve the clay in a dark and humid place (a basement, bunker etc.). Thus you guarantee your reserves for a couple of months. If your pieces are large (50 x 50 cm) and are properly stored, you will have a resource for the entire year. More or less, this is what I have learnt from the old man. I have added some important dependencies and a little terminology (gravity interaction, gravity resonance, antenna horizon, horizontal gravity component, etc) for further clarity and better understanding of this phenomenon. The information obtained from the old man was sufficient for my initial successful experiments, but proved to be insufficient for the precise location and location of objects. RESEARCH ACTIVITY From the moment I touched the rod we became one. It took me a couple of months to master perfectly the balance and to achieve good location of known objects. However, working on a training field I had to face deviations, a series of complicated dependencies and many unknowns. This forced me to begin a detailed scientific research of the prototype and the physical phenomenon in order to clear out the functioning principle. This research has taken many years and I still continue to experiment and develop the ultimate prototype. I am currently on the fourth generation of my work, I have achieved hundred times more powerful reaction (of that of the Roman Rod), the exactness of the location is twice more precise, and the activation is harmless. During the research process, I have managed to achieve a significantly better location, because I improved the construction of the prototypes and developed the resonators. Step by step, I figured out many of the gravity effects as well as other dependencies, and then I formulated the new theory for the fundamental forces. The functioning principle of the Roman Rod, as well as of the Physical Radiesthesia (not the mental or the mixed one), is based on the gravity interaction. Under certain conditions and the proper activation of the resonator, occurs a difference between the gravity mass and the inertia mass. The latter ones are not completely equivalent, as Einstein thought! Due to this, occurs a phenomenon which I call - the Gravity Resonance. The essence of this phenomenon is the increase in the gravity attraction between objects composed of the same chemical element. In the Universe, does not exist Dark Matter and Dark Energy, but there are effects from the phenomenon unknown to science - the Gravity Resonance. Indeed, it is the Gravity Resonance that underlines the success of the Roman Rod and the Physical Radiesthesia in ancient times. The Roman Rod is an ancestor of different and even more ancient dowsing rods invented by the Thracians, the Egyptians and other ancient geo explorers. Here, in Bulgaria, has been found the most antique gold in the world. This gold did not fall from the sky. It has been detected, extracted and processed by the ancient Thracians on our territories. The ancient radiesthesists have accumulated a significant volume of empirical knowledge, which have been passed, enlarged and improved by the following generations. This knowledge was passed only in the priest's families and was carefully hidden, as a sacred secret. Unfortunately, during the Middle Ages, this secret knowledge has been persecuted and permanently destroyed. A few unknown heroes have managed to secretly preserve it. I feel extremely lucky that such knowledge was proposed to me. If the Roman Rod had not functioned, I would not have undertaken such a serious research work, but it did and I could not find peace. Thus, with many tests and research work, I managed to take a peak in the great secret of the Universe - the Fundamental forces and the Gravity Resonance. However, I will not expose my scientific achievements here and deal with theoretical contemplations and analysi.
What is some damage that a thunderstorm woulld cause?
A thunderstorm, also known as an electrical storm, a lightning storm, thundershower or simply a storm is a form of weather characterized by the presence of lightning and its acoustic effect on theEarth's atmosphere known as thunder.[1]The meteorologically assigned cloud type associated with the thunderstorm is the cumulonimbus. Thunderstorms are usually accompanied by strong winds,heavy rain and sometimes snow, sleet, hail, or no precipitation at all. Those that cause hail to fall are called hailstorms. Thunderstorms may line up in a series or rainband, known as a squall line. Strong or severe thunderstorms may rotate, known as supercells. While most thunderstorms move with the mean wind flow through the layer of the troposphere that they occupy, vertical wind shear causes a deviation in their course at a right angle to the wind shear direction.Thunderstorms result from the rapid upward movement of warm, moist air. They can occur inside warm, moist air masses and at fronts. As the warm, moist air moves upward, it cools, condenses, and forms cumulonimbus clouds that can reach heights of over 20 km. As the rising air reaches its dew point, water droplets and ice form and begin falling the long distance through the clouds towards the Earth's surface. As the droplets fall, they collide with other droplets and become larger. The falling droplets create a downdraft of air that spreads out at the Earth's surface and causes strong winds associated with thunderstorms.Thunderstorms can generally form and develop in any geographic location, perhaps most frequently within areas located at mid-latitude when warm moist air collides with cooler air.[2]Thunderstorms are responsible for the development and formation of many severe weather phenomena. Thunderstorms, and the phenomena that occur along with them, pose great hazards to populations and landscapes. Damage that results from thunderstorms is mainly inflicted by downburst winds, large hailstones, and flash flooding caused by heavy precipitation. Stronger thunderstorm cells are capable of producing tornadoes and waterspouts.There are four types of thunderstorms: single-cell, multicell cluster, multicell lines, and supercells. Supercell thunderstorms are the strongest and the most associated with severe weather phenomena.Mesoscale convective systems formed by favorable vertical wind shear within the tropics and subtropicsare responsible for the development of hurricanes. Dry thunderstorms, with no precipitation, can cause the outbreak of wildfires with the heat generated from the cloud-to-ground lightning that accompanies them. Several methods are used to study thunderstorms, such as weather radar, weather stations, and video photography. Past civilizations held various myths concerning thunderstorms and their development as late as the Eighteenth Century. Other than within the Earth's atmosphere, thunderstorms have also been observed on Jupiter and Venus.Warm air has a lower density than cool air, so warm air rises within cooler air,[3]similar to hot air balloons.[4]Clouds form as relatively warmer air carrying moisture rises within cooler air. As the moist air rises, it cools causing some of the water vapor in the rising packet of air to condense.[5]When the moisture condenses, it releases energy known as latent heat of fusion, which allows the rising packet of air to cool less than the surrounding air,[6]continuing the cloud's ascension. If enough instability is present in the atmosphere, this process will continue long enough for cumulonimbus clouds to form, which support lightning and thunder. Meteorological indices such as convective available potential energy (CAPE) and the lifted index can be used to assist in determining upward vertical development of clouds.[7]Generally, thunderstorms require three conditions to form:MoistureAn unstable airmassA lifting force (heat)All thunderstorms, regardless of type, go through three stages: the developing stage, the mature stage, and the dissipation stage.[8]The average thunderstorm has a 24 km (15 mi) diameter. Depending on the conditions present in the atmosphere, these three stages take an average of 30 minutes to go through.[9]Cumulus stageThe first stage of a thunderstorm is the cumulus stage, or developing stage. In this stage, masses of moisture are lifted upwards into the atmosphere. The trigger for this lift can be insolation heating the ground producing thermals, areas where two winds converge forcing air upwards, or where winds blow over terrain of increasing elevation. The moisture rapidly cools into liquid drops of water due to the cooler temperatures at high altitude, which appears as cumulus clouds. As the water vapor condenses into liquid, latent heat is released, which warms the air, causing it to become less dense than the surrounding dry air. The air tends to rise in an updraft through the process ofconvection(hence the term convective precipitation). This creates a low-pressure zone beneath the forming thunderstorm. In a typical thunderstorm, approximately 5×108 kg of water vapor are lifted into the Earth's atmosphere.[10][edit]Mature stageAnvil shaped thundercloud in the mature stage over Swifts Creek, VictoriaCumulonimbus cloud over White Canyon in UtahIn the mature stage of a thunderstorm, the warmed air continues to rise until it reaches even warmer air and can rise no further. Often this 'cap' is the tropopause. The air is instead forced to spread out, giving the storm a characteristic anvil shape. The resulting cloud is calledcumulonimbus incus. The water droplets coalesce into larger and heavier droplets and freeze to become ice particles. As these fall they melt to become rain. If the updraft is strong enough, the droplets are held aloft long enough to become so large they do not melt completely, and fall as hail. While updrafts are still present, the falling rain createsdowndrafts as well. The simultaneous presence of both an updraft and downdrafts marks the mature stage of the storm, and produces Cumulonimbus clouds. During this stage, considerable internal turbulence can occur in the storm system, which sometimes manifests as strong winds, severe lightning, and even tornadoes.[11]Typically, if there is little wind shear, the storm will rapidly enter the dissipating stage and 'rain itself out',[8]but if there is sufficient change in wind speed and/or direction the downdraft will be separated from the updraft, and the storm may become a supercell, and the mature stage can sustain itself for several hours.[12][edit]Dissipating stageIn the dissipation stage, the thunderstorm is dominated by the downdraft. If atmospheric conditions do not support super cellular development, this stage occurs rather quickly, approximately 20--30 minutes into the life of the thunderstorm. The downdraft will push down out of the thunderstorm, hit the ground and spread out. This phenomenon is known as adownburst. The cool air carried to the ground by the downdraft cuts off the inflow of the thunderstorm, the updraft disappears and the thunderstorm will dissipate. Thunderstorms in an atmosphere with virtually no vertical wind shear weaken as soon as they send out an outflow boundary in all directions, which then quickly cuts off its inflow of relatively warm, moist air and kills the thunderstorm.[13]The downdraft hitting the ground creates an outflow boundary. This can cause downbursts, a potential hazardous condition for aircraft that fly through it, as a substantial change in wind speed and direction occurs, resulting in decrease of lift of the aircraft. The stronger the outflow boundary is, the stronger the resultant vertical wind shear becomes.[14][edit]ClassificationConditions favorable for thunderstorm types and complexesThere are four main types of thunderstorms: single-cell, multicell, squall line (also called multicell line) and supercell. Which type forms depends on the instability and relative wind conditions at different layers of the atmosphere ("wind shear"). Single-cell thunderstorms form in environments of low vertical wind shear and last only 20--30 minutes. Organized thunderstorms and thunderstorm clusters/lines can have longer life cycles as they form in environments of significant vertical wind shear, which aids the development of stronger updrafts as well as various forms of severe weather. The supercell is the strongest of the thunderstorms, most commonly associated with large hail, high winds, and tornado formation.[edit]Single-cellMain article: Air-mass thunderstormA single-cell thunderstorm overWagga Wagga.This term technically applies to a single thunderstorm with one main updraft. Also known as air-mass thunderstorms, these are the typical summer thunderstorms in many temperate locales. They also occur in the cool unstable air that often follows the passage of a cold front from the sea during winter. Within a cluster of thunderstorms, the term "cell" refers to each separate principal updraft. Thunderstorm cells occasionally form in isolation, as the occurrence of one thunderstorm can develop an outflow boundary that sets up new thunderstorm development. Such storms are rarely severe and are a result of local atmospheric instability; hence the term "air mass thunderstorm". When such storms have a brief period of severe weather associated with them, it is known as a pulse severe storm. Pulse severe storms are poorly organized and occur randomly in time and space, making them difficult to forecast. Single-cell thunderstorms normally last 20--30 minutes.[9][edit]Multicell clustersA group of thunderstorms overBrazilphotographed by the Space Shuttle Challenger.This is the most common type of thunderstorm development. Mature thunderstorms are found near the center of the cluster, while dissipating thunderstorms exist on their downwind side. Multicell storms form as clusters of storms but may then evolve into one or more squall lines. While each cell of the cluster may only last 20 minutes, the cluster itself may persist for hours at a time. They often arise from convective updrafts in or near mountain ranges and linear weather boundaries, usually strong cold fronts or troughs of low pressure. These type of storms are stronger than the single-cell storm, yet much weaker than the supercell storm. Hazards with the multicell cluster include moderate-sized hail, flash flooding, and weak tornadoes.[9][edit]Multicell linesMain article: Squall lineSee also: List of derecho eventsA squall line is an elongated line of severe thunderstorms that can form along and/or ahead of a cold front.[15][16]In the early 20th century, the term was used as a synonym for cold front.[17]The squall line contains heavy precipitation, hail, frequent lightning, strong straight line winds, and possibly tornadoes and waterspouts.[18]Severe weather in the form of strong straight-line winds can be expected in areas where the squall line itself is in the shape of a bow echo, within the portion of the line that bows out the most.[19]Tornadoes can be found along waves within a line echo wave pattern, or LEWP, where mesoscale low pressure areas are present.[20]Some bow echoes in the summer are calledderechos, and move quite fast through large sections of territory.[21]On the back edge of the rain shield associated with mature squall lines, a wake low can form, which is a mesoscale low pressure area that forms behind the mesoscale high pressure system normally present under the rain canopy, which are sometimes associated with a heat burst.[22]This kind of storm is also known as "Wind of the Stony Lake" (Traditional Chinese:石湖風 -- shi2 hu2 feng1, Simplified Chinese: 石湖风) in southern China.[23][edit]SupercellsMain article: SupercellA supercellThe setting sun illuminates the top of a classic anvil-shaped thunderstorm cloud in eastern Nebraska, United States.Supercell storms are large, severe quasi-steady-state storms with wind speed and direction that vary with height ("wind shear"), separate downdrafts and updrafts (i.e., precipitation is not falling through the updraft) and a strong, rotating updraft (a "mesocyclone"). These storms normally have such powerful updrafts that the top of the cloud (or anvil) can break through the troposphere and reach into the lower levels of the stratosphere and can be 15 miles (24 km) wide. At least 90 percent of this type of thunderstorm bring severe weather.[12]These storms can produce destructive tornadoes, sometimes F3 or higher, extremely large hailstones (4 inches / 10 centimetres diameter), straight-line winds in excess of 80 mph (130 km/h), and flash floods. In fact, most tornadoes occur from this type of thunderstorm.[24]Supercells are the most powerful type of thunderstorm.[9][edit]Severe thunderstormsA severe thunderstorm is a term designating a thunderstorm that has reached a predetermined level of severity. This level is determined by the storm being strong enough to inflict wind or hail damage. A storm is considered severe if winds reach over 93 kilometres per hour (58 mph), hail is 1 inch (25.4 mm) in diameter or larger, or if funnel clouds and/or tornadoes are reported.[25][26][27]Though a funnel cloud or tornado indicates a severe thunderstorm, a tornado warning is issued in place of a severe thunderstorm warning. In Canada, a rainfall rate greater than 50 millimetres (2 in) in one hour, or 75 millimetres (3 in) in three hours is also used to indicate severe thunderstorms.[28]Severe thunderstorms can occur from any type of storm cell. However, multicell, supercell, and squall lines represent the most common forms of thunderstorms that produce severe weather.[12][edit]Mesoscale convective systemsSee also: Mesoscale convective systemMCC moving throughNew England: August 2, 2006 0600 UTCA mesoscale convective system (MCS) is a complex of thunderstorms that becomes organized on a scale larger than the individual thunderstorms but smaller than extratropical cyclones, and normally persists for several hours or more.[29]A mesoscale convective system's overall cloud and precipitation pattern may be round or linear in shape, and include weather systems such as tropical cyclones, squall lines, lake-effect snow events, polar lows, and Mesoscale Convective Complexes (MCCs), and generally form near weather fronts. Most mesoscale convective systems develop overnight and continue their lifespan through the next day.[8]The type that forms during the warm season over land has been noted across North America, Europe, and Asia, with a maximum in activity noted during the late afternoon and evening hours.[30][31]Forms of MCS that develop within the tropics use either the Intertropical Convergence Zone or monsoon troughs as a focus for their development, generally within the warm season between spring and fall. More intense systems form over land than over water.[32][33]One exception is that of lake-effect snow bands, which form due to cold air moving across relatively warm bodies of water, and occurs from fall through spring.[34]Polar lows are a second special class of MCS. They form at high latitudes during the cold season.[35]Once the parent MCS dies, later thunderstorm development can occur in connection with its remnant mesoscale convective vortex (MCV).[36]Mesoscale convective systems are important to the United States rainfall climatology over the Great Plains since they bring the region about half of their annual warm season rainfall.[37][edit]MotionThunderstorm line viewed in reflectivity (dBZ) on a PPI (NOAA)The two major ways thunderstorms move are via advection of the wind and propagation alongoutflow boundaries towards sources of greater heat and moisture. Many thunderstorms move with the mean wind speed through the Earth's troposphere, or the lowest 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) of theEarth's atmosphere. Younger thunderstorms are steered by winds closer to the Earth's surface than more mature thunderstorms, as they are less tall. Organized, long-lived thunderstorm cells and complexes move at a right angle to the direction of the vertical wind shear vector. If the gust front, or leading edge of the outflow boundary, races ahead of the thunderstorm, its motion will accelerate in tandem. This is more of a factor with thunderstorms with heavy precipitation (HP) than with thunderstorms with low precipitation (LP). When thunderstorms merge, which is most likely when numerous thunderstorms exist in proximity to each other, the motion of the stronger thunderstorm normally dictates future motion of the merged cell. The stronger the mean wind, the less likely other processes will be involved in storm motion. On weather radar, storms are tracked by using a prominent feature and tracking it from scan to scan.[12][edit]Back-building thunderstormA back building thunderstorm is a thunderstorm in which new development takes place on the upwind side (usually the west or southwest side in the Northern Hemisphere), such that the storm seems to remain stationary or propagate in a backward direction. Though the storm often appears stationary on radar, or even moving upwind, this is an illusion. The storm is really a multi-cell storm with new, more vigorous cells that form on the upwind side, replacing older cells that continue to drift downwind.[38]When this happens, catastrophic flooding is possible. In Rapid City, South Dakota, in 1972, an unusual alignment of winds at various levels of the atmosphere combined to produce a continuous, stationary cell that dropped an enormous quantity of rain, resulting in devastating flash flooding.[39]A similar event occurred inBoscastle, England, on 16 August 2004.[40][edit]HazardsEach year, many people are killed or seriously injured by severe thunderstorms despite the advance warning. While severe thunderstorms are most common in the spring and summer, they can occur at just about any time of the year.[edit]Cloud-to-ground lightningSee also: Acid rain, Lightning, and WildfireA return stroke, cloud-to-ground lightning strike.Cloud-to-ground lightning frequently occur within the phenomena of thunderstorms and have numerous hazards towards landscapes and populations. One of the more significant hazards lightning can pose is the wildfires they are capable of igniting.[41]Under a regime of low precipitation (LP) thunderstorms, where little precipitation is present, rainfall cannot prevent fires from starting when vegetation is dry as lightning produces a concentrated amount of extreme heat.[42]Wildfires can devastate vegetation and the biodiversity of an ecosystem. Wildfires that occur close to urban environments can inflict damages upon infrastructures, buildings, crops, and provide risks to explosions, should the flames be exposed to gas pipes. Direct damage caused by lightning strikes occurs on occasion.[43]In areas with a high frequency for cloud-to-ground lightning, like Florida, lightning causes several fatalities per year, most commonly to people working outside.[44]Precipitation with low potential of hydrogen levels (pH), otherwise known as acid rain, is also a frequent risk produced by lightning. Distilled water, which contains no carbon dioxide, has a neutral pH of 7. Liquids with a pH less than 7 are acidic, and those with a pH greater than 7 are bases. "Clean" or unpolluted rain has a slightly acidic pH of about 5.2, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form carbonic acid, a weak acid (pH 5.6 in distilled water), but unpolluted rain also contains other chemicals.[45]Nitric oxide present during thunderstorm phenomena,[46]caused by the splitting of nitrogen molecules, can result in the production of acid rain, if nitric oxide forms compounds with the water molecules in precipitation, thus creating acid rain. Acid rain can damage infrastructures containing calcite or other solid chemical compounds containing carbon. In ecosystems, acid rain can dissolve plant tissues of vegetations and increase acidification process in bodies of water and in soil, resulting in deaths of marine and terrestrial organisms.[47][edit]Large hailstonesMain article: HailHailstorm in Bogotá, Colombia.Any thunderstorm that produces hail that reaches the ground is known as a hailstorm.[48]Thunderclouds that are capable of producing hailstones are often seen obtaining green coloration. Hail is more common along mountain ranges because mountains force horizontal winds upwards (known as orographic lifting), thereby intensifying the updrafts within thunderstorms and making hail more likely.[49]One of the more common regions for large hail is across the mountainous northern India, which reported one of the highest hail-related death tolls on record in 1888.[50]China also experiences significant hailstorms.[51]Across Europe, Croatia experiences frequent occurrences of hail.[52]In North America, hail is most common in the area where Colorado, Nebraska, and Wyoming meet, known as "Hail Alley."[53]Hail in this region occurs between the months of March and October during the afternoon and evening hours, with the bulk of the occurrences from May through September.Cheyenne, Wyoming is North America's most hail-prone city with an average of nine to ten hailstorms per season.[54]Hail can cause serious damage, notably to automobiles, aircraft, skylights, glass-roofed structures, livestock, and most commonly, farmers'crops.[54]Hail is one of the most significant thunderstorm hazards to aircraft. When hail stones exceed 0.5 inch (13 mm) in diameter, planes can be seriously damaged within seconds.[55]The hailstones accumulating on the ground can also be hazardous to landing aircraft. Wheat, corn, soybeans, and tobacco are the most sensitive crops to hail damage.[50]Hail is one of Canada's most costly hazards.[56]Rarely have massive hailstones been known to cause concussions or fatal head trauma. Hailstorms have been the cause of costly and deadly events throughout history. One of the earliest recorded incidents occurred around the 9th century in Roopkund, Uttarakhand, India.[57]The largest hailstone in terms of maximum circumference and length ever recorded in the United States fell in 2003 in Aurora, Nebraska, USA.[58][edit]Tornadoes and waterspoutsThe F5 tornado that struck Elie, Manitobain 2007.Main articles: Tornado and WaterspoutA tornado is a violent, dangerous, rotating column of air in contact with both the surface of the earth and a cumulonimbus cloud (otherwise known as a thundercloud) or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. Tornadoes come in many sizes but are typically in the form of a visiblecondensation funnel, whose narrow end touches the earth and is often encircled by a cloud ofdebrisand dust.[59]Most tornadoes have wind speeds between 40 and 110 mph (64 and 180 km/h), are approximately 250 feet (76 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. Some attain wind speeds of more than 300 mph (480 km/h), stretch more than one mile (1.6 km) across, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[60][61][62]The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. An EF0tornado, the weakest category, damages trees but not substantial structures. An EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[63]Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[64]Formation of numerous waterspouts in the Great Lakes region. (North America)A flash flood caused by a severe thunderstormWaterspouts have similar characteristics as tornadoes, characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current that form over bodies of water, connecting to large Cumlonimbus clouds. Waterspouts are generally classified as forms of tornadoes, or more specifically, non-supercelledtornadoes that develop over large bodies of water.[65]These spiralling columns of air are frequently developed within tropical areas close to the equator, but are less common within areas of high latitude.[66][edit]Flash floodMain article: Flash floodFlash flooding is the process where a landscape, most notably an urban environment, is subjected to rapid floods.[67]These rapid floods occur more quickly and are more localized than seasonal river flooding or areal flooding[68]and are frequently (though not always) associated with intense rainfall.[69]Flash flooding can frequently occur in slow-moving thunderstorms and is usually caused by the heavy liquid precipitation that accompanies it. Flash floods are most common in densely populated urban environments, where few plants and bodies of water are presented to absorb and contain the extra water. Flash flooding can be hazardous to small infrastructure, such as bridges, and weakly constructed buildings. Plants and crops in agricultural areas can be destroyed and devastated by the force of raging water. Automobiles parked within experiencing areas can also be displaced. Soil erosion can occur as well, exposing risks of landslidephenomena.[edit]DownburstMain article: DownburstTrees uprooted or displaced by the force of a downburst wind.Downburst winds can produce numerous hazards to landscapes experiencing thunderstorms. Downburst winds are generally very powerful, and are often mistaken for wind speeds produced by tornadoes,[70]due to the concentrated amount of force exerted by their straight-horizontal characteristic. Downburst winds can be hazardous to unstable, incomplete, or weakly constructed infrastructures and buildings. Agricultural crops, and other plants in nearby environments can be uprooted and damaged. Aircraft engaged in takeoff or landing can crash.[8][70]Automobiles can be displaced by the force exerted by downburst winds. Downburst winds are usually formed in areas when high pressure air systems of downdrafts begin to sink and displace the air masses below it, due to their higher density. When these downdrafts reach the surface, they spread out and turn into the destructive straight-horizontal winds.[8][edit]Safety precautionsSee also: Emergency management and Tornado preparednessMost thunderstorms come and go fairly uneventfully; however, any thunderstorm can become severe, and all thunderstorms, by definition, present the danger of lightning.[71]Thunderstorm preparedness and safety refers to taking steps before, during, and after a thunderstorm to minimize injury and damage.[edit]PreparednessPreparedness refers to precautions that should be taken before a thunderstorm. Some preparedness takes the form of general readiness (as a thunderstorm can occur at any time of the day or year).[72]Preparing a family emergency plan, for example, can save valuable time if a storm arises quickly and unexpectedly.[73]Preparing the home by removing dead or rotting limbs and trees, which can be blown over in high winds, can also significantly reduce the risk of property damage and personal injury.[74]The National Weather Service in the United States recommends several precautions that people should take if thunderstorms are likely to occur:[72]People should know the names of local counties, cities, and towns, as these are how warnings are described.[72]Monitor forecasts and know whether thunderstorms are likely in the area.Be alert for natural signs of an approaching storm.Cancel or reschedule outdoor events (to avoid being caught outdoors when a storm hits).Avoid open areas like hilltops, fields, and beaches.[72][edit]SafetyWhile safety and preparedness often overlap, "thunderstorm safety" generally refers to what people should do during and after a storm. TheAmerican Red Cross recommends that people follow these precautions if a storm is imminent or in progress:[71]Take action immediately upon hearing thunder. Anyone close enough to the storm to hear thunder can be struck by lightning.[74]Avoid electrical appliances, including corded telephones.[71]Cordless and wireless telephones are safe to use during a thunderstorm.[74]Close and stay away from windows and doors, as glass can become a serious hazard in high wind.[71]Do not bathe or shower, as plumbing conducts electricity.If driving, safely exit the roadway, turn on hazard lights, and park. Remain in the vehicle and avoid touching metal.[71]If reaching a safe, sturdy building is not possible, crouch as low as possible (in a low area like a ditch) and minimize contact with the ground.[71][edit]Frequent occurrencesSee also: United States rainfall climatologyThunderstorms occur throughout the world, even in the polar regions, with the greatest frequency in tropical rainforest areas, where they may occur nearly daily. Kampala and Tororo in Uganda have each been mentioned as the most thunderous places on Earth,[75]a claim also made for Bogor on Java, Indonesia and Singapore. Thunderstorms are associated with the various monsoon seasons around the globe, and they populate the rainbands of tropical cyclones.[76]In temperate regions, they are most frequent in spring and summer, although they can occur along or ahead of cold fronts at any time of year.[77]They may also occur within a cooler air mass following the passage of a cold front over a relatively warmer body of water. Thunderstorms are rare in polar regions because of cold surface temperatures.Some of the most powerful thunderstorms over the United States occur in the Midwest and the Southern states. These storms can produce large hail and powerful tornadoes. Thunderstorms are relatively uncommon along much of the West Coast of the United States,[78]but they occur with greater frequency in the inland areas, particularly the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys of California. In spring and summer, they occur nearly daily in certain areas of the Rocky Mountains as part of the North American Monsoon regime. In the Northeast, storms take on similar characteristics and patterns as the Midwest, only less frequently and severely. During the summer, air-mass thunderstormsare an almost daily occurrence over central and southern parts of Florida.[edit]Types of lightning3-second video of a lightning strike within a thunderstorm over Island in the Sky,Canyonlands National Park, UtahCloud to ground lightning over Pentagon City in Arlington, VirginiaLightning storm over Sydney, New South WalesMain article: LightningLightning is an electrical discharge that occurs in a thunderstorm. It can be seen in the form of a bright streak (or bolt) from the sky. Lightning occurs when anelectrical charge is built up within a cloud, due to static electricity generated by supercooled water dropletscolliding with ice crystals near the freezing level. When a large enough charge is built up, a large discharge will occur and can be seen as lightning.The temperature of a lightning bolt can be five times hotter than the surface of the sun.[79]Although the lightning is extremely hot, the duration is short and 90% of strike victims survive. Contrary to the popular idea that lightning does not strike twice in the same spot, some people have been struck by lightning over three times, and skyscrapers like theEmpire State Building have been struck numerous times in the same storm.[80]The loud bang that is heard is the super heated air around the lightning bolt expanding at the speed of sound. Because sound travels much more slowly than light the flash is seen before the bang, although both occur at the same moment.There are several types of lightning:In-cloud lightning is the most common. It is lightning within a cloud and is sometimes called intra-cloud or sheet lightning.Cloud to ground lightning is when a bolt of lightning from a cloud strikes the ground. This form poses the greatest threat to life and property.Ground to cloud lightning is when a lightning bolt is induced from the ground to the cloud.Cloud to cloud lightning is rarely seen and is when a bolt of lightning arcs from one cloud to another.Ball lightning is extremely rare and has several hypothesized explanations. It is seen in the form of a 15 to 50 centimeter radius ball.[81]Cloud to air lightning is when lightning from a cloud hits air of a different charge.[82]Dry lightning is a misnomer that refers to a thunderstorm whose precipitation does not reach the ground.Heat Lightning refers to a lightning flash that is seen from the horizon that does not have accompanying thunder.[83]Upper-atmospheric lightning occurs above the thunderhead.[edit]EnergySee also: Sprite (lightning), Upper-atmospheric lightning, and St. Elmo's fireHow thunderstorms launch particle beams into spaceIf the quantity of water that is condensed in and subsequently precipitated from a cloud is known, then the total energy of a thunderstorm can be calculated. In a typical thunderstorm, approximately 5×108 kg of water vapor are lifted, and the amount of energy released when this condenses is 1015 joules. This is on the same order of magnitude of energy released within a tropical cyclone, and more energy than that released during the atomic bomb blast at Hiroshima, Japan in 1945.[10]The Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor results show that gamma rays and antimatter particles (positrons) can be generated in powerful thunderstorms.[84]It is suggested that the antimatter positrons are formed in terrestrial gamma-ray flashes (TGF). TGFs are brief bursts occurring inside thunderstorms and associated with lightning. The streams of positrons and electrons collide higher in the atmosphere to generate more gamma rays.[85]About 500 TGFs may occur every day worldwide, but mostly go undetected.[edit]StudiesIn more contemporary times, thunderstorms have taken on the role of a scientific curiosity. Every spring, storm chasers head to the Great Plains of the United States and the Canadian Prairies to explore the scientific aspects of storms and tornadoes through use of videotaping.[86]Radio pulses produced by cosmic rays are being used to study how electric charges develop within thunderstorms.[87]More organized meteorological projects such as VORTEX2 use an array of sensors, such as the Doppler on Wheels, vehicles with mounted automated weather stations, weather balloons, and unmanned aircraft to investigate thunderstorms expected to produce severe weather.[88]Lightning is detected remotely using sensors that detect cloud-to-ground lightning strokes with 95 percent accuracy in detection and within 250 metres (820 ft) of their point of origin.[89][edit]MythologyThunderstorms strongly influenced many early civilizations. Greeks thought they were battles waged by Zeus, who hurled lightning bolts forged by Hephaestus. Some American Indian tribes associated thunderstorms with the Thunderbird, who they believed was a servant of theGreat Spirit.[90]The Norse considered thunderstorms to occur when Thor went to beat on Jötnar, with the thunder and lightning being the effect of his strikes with the hammer Mjölnir. Christian doctrine accepted the ideas of Aristotle's original work, called Meteorologica, that winds were caused by exhalations from the Earth and that fierce storms were the work of God. These ideas were still within the mainstream as late as the 18th century.[91][edit]Outside of EarthThe clouds of Venus are capable of producing lightning much like the clouds on Earth. The lightning rate is at least half of that on Earth.[92]A thin layer of water clouds appears to underlie the ammonia layer within Jupiter's atmosphere, where thunderstorms evidenced by flashes oflightninghave been detected. (Water is a polar molecule that can carry a charge, so it is capable of creating the charge separation needed to produce lightning.)[93]These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on the Earth.[94]The water clouds can form thunderstorms driven by the heat rising from the interior.[95]curtiesy of me!!
Why areal velocity is constant in central force?
If the force is constant then this will make the velocity of the object spinning constant as well, and for the velocity to be constant all the forces must be balanced and therefore constant
What is the definition of areal rainfall?
areal rainfall?
What is areal velocity?
The areal velocity of a particle is the rate at which area is swept out as the particle travels along a curve. The area is swept out by a vector (starting at the origin.)In words:Imagine an empty space with a single point in it. That point doesn't move; it represents the the origin. Now image a particle flying around in that space. An arrow always points from the origin to that particle (and touches the particle). As the particle moves, that arrow moves, possibly getting longer or shorter depending on where the particle is. Instead of just moving though, it creates a "path" of area. Everywhere that arrow touches in the space, it "paints" that space, so as it moves, more and more space gets "painted". This "painted space" is the area. The rate at which the amount of this "painted space" changes is the areal velocity of that particle.As equations:dA/dt=r x v/2dA/dt=L/(2m)Notice that the areal velocity is a vector.
What is areal extent?
Areal extent is the magnitude of an area. This term is often used in cartography. Areal is the adjective form of the noun area. An extent is the magnitude of something.
What is the population of Sao Jose-de-Areal?
Sao Jose-de-Areal's population is 8,352.
What are the areal plants?
The answer is Epiphytes
What is an areal in Gymnastics?
Its a no handed Cartwheel
What continent is the areal sea on?
Marinas trench
What is an adjective form of the noun area?
areal
Are bihlul and bihter are areal couple?
No, they aren't.
Does standard bank is areal bank in UK?
no
What is meant by the word areal?
Word areal is also called bit density. Word areal is the amount of data that can be packed onto a storage medium. Those densities are measured in gigabits per square inch. The term is useful for comparing different types of media, such as magnetic disks and optical disks. Current magnetic and optical disks have areal densities of several gigabits per square inch.
